The Impact Of Social Media On College Students - 1133 Words

Introduction to Social Media Does the name Mark Zuckerburg mean anything to you? If you are in higher education administration it should. When he attended Harvard University, he was a cunning college student who hacked into the universities computer system. He stole information about students who currently attended the university such as photos and ID information. As a result of his illegal endeavors, he created a website called Facemash and encouraged site visitors to rate people participating in the website as â€Å"hot or not.† This was his first effort at advancing the world in social media. His second effort was creating a study tool to upload images of Roman art, which allowed each student to write a commentary underneath. Both of these internet successes led to the creation of a known website called Facebook. This website privileges over half a billion users around the world. In higher education, social media is not a new phenomenon. When students use it correctly, there is evidence it can greatly enhance student learning, but social media can have serious cognitive effects on college students possibly even resulting in the decline of their GPA (Magolda, 2011). Positive Outcomes to Using Social Media to Further Student Learning Facebook is a very prevalent and collaborating internet website which jointly falls in the category of Web 2.0 . This internet tool is designed where the user can establish a personal profile to the public, easily make multimedia content, and shareShow MoreRelatedThe Impact Of Social Media On College Students1691 Words   |  7 Pagesin Sociology of Culture Social Media: College Students and Our Role Are we becoming less human with the passing of each day? Have we become too dependent on technology, specifically social media? In this day and age, people have different views on social media. They question its true purpose and its effect on society as a whole. With that said, although there are many thoughts concerning the topic/trend of social media something that is undoubtedly true is that social media plays an active role inRead MoreImpact Of Social Media On College Students Essay1588 Words   |  7 PagesIt is difficult to put an exact time on when social media was created, but it has been around in some form since 1991. 1991 is when the world-wide web was created to provide an enhanced network communication platform. The development of higher speed internet services, and what is referred to as web 2.0, opened the door for many more possibilities and features for social media. The creation of Myspace in 2003, and Facebook in 2004 shifted social media from a basic platform to connect, to an interactiveRead MoreSocial Media And Its Impact On School And College Students881 Words   |  4 PagesIn this modern era, social media has become an inseparable part of our daily life. It has become a modem of communication. People from distance places get connected with each other which has made has the world smaller virtually. Today it has been possible for me to know about family and friends being abroad. With over 1 billion user, Facebook has become the most popular sites among all the social media sites. Facebook is a site where people get to share their feelings. People of different age groupRead MoreEffects Of Social Media On College Students1212 Words   |  5 PagesSocial media is a huge platform that many people use as a social outlet to communicate among others. The more popular websites like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have long existed and given users a way to stay connected with family and friends. However, there has been an ongoing debate about the positive and negative effects that it tends to have on different generations. While many in today’s society believe that social media can be unhealthy due to its ability to become addictive, there areRead MoreThe Effects Of Social Media On Our Society1559 Words   |  7 Pagesthat social media has taken over conventional media in the world today. We can easily see that they have impacts on our society. Since the introduction of social network sites years ago, to communicate with friends and family has been easy once you have access to internet.The definition of social media is the relationship that exist between network of people (Walter Riviera, 2004). In the last ten years, the online world has changed dramatically. Thanks to the ivention of social media, youngRead MoreThe Current System Of Global Social Networking Essay1663 Words   |  7 Pagesexchange of thoughts and ideas among people were once hindered by long distances and cultural divides, but this is no long er true as knowledge and information are currently free flowing. The current system of global social networking allows for ample sharing of thoughts and ideas with online social networks such as Twitter and Facebook emerging as giants in this new world (Hogan, 2010). Qualman (2010) stated that the introduction of technological innovations and infrastructure into countries has been a majorRead MoreThe Current System Of Global Social Networking Essay1662 Words   |  7 Pagesexchange of thoughts and ideas among people were once hindered by long distances and cultural divides, but this is no longer true as knowledge and information are currently free flowing. The current system of global social networking allows for ample sharing of thoughts and ideas with online social networks such as Twitter and Facebook emerging as giants in this new world (Hogan, 2010). Qualman (2010) stated that the introduction of technological innovations and infrastructure into countries has been a majorRead MoreThe Emergence Of The Internet And Social Media1079 Words   |  5 PagesThe emergence of the Internet and social media has had a tremendous impact on the theory and practice of advertising, public relations and marketing disciplines. Advertising spending on the Internet has outpaced all other traditional media (Center for Media Research, 2004). In the last two years, the number of social networking tools and the number of people using those tools have exploded, thus the rules are constantly changing and there is considerable uncertainty on how to employ these tools fromRead MoreThe Impact of Social Media Upon Education1709 Words   |  7 Pages Social media is a necessity. Around every corner, a person is seen scrolling through the countless news feeds on their favorite social media sites. This fast developing technology is changing the way that the world communicates on all levels, even to the point that people text each other when they are in the same room. With the uprising of faster social media, hardly anything else is used to get information, or communicate it. The obvious fact that social media is truly everywhere isRead MoreEssay On Why Students Should Have Zero Tolerance On The Learning Environment For Students744 Words   |  3 PagesHarvard University recently revoked offers of admission to a group of students who were engaging in offensive social media behavior that spurred from a Facebook group created by Harvard for new students. Harvard previously stated that they could revoke an offer of admission if a studentâ€⠄¢s maturity, honesty, or moral character is questioned. Therefore, the students knew the consequences prior to their actions. For these reason’s it seems as if Harvard was fair in their decision. However, I would like

Different Types Of Special Needs Essay - 2282 Words

Special Needs 18.5% of American children under the age of eighteen have special needs. There are four basic types of special needs: Physical, Developmental, Behavioral/Emotional, and Sensory Impaired. According the the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, one in five children have a (MEB) mental, emotional, or behavioral disorder. In fact, the number one health problem concerning children in America are MEB disorders; due to the rising rate of such disorders, it is important that we work to help these children overcome daily challenges and feel accepted in society. The most commonly treated disorders are those called â€Å"Disruptive Behavior Disorders.† These disorders can be broken down into a few types which include: Anxiety disorders, Disruptive behavioral disorders, Dissociative disorders, Emotional disorders, and Pervasive developmental disorders. Anxiety Disorders cause a person to feel fearful or uncertain at most times. A generalized anxiety disorder can cause you to feel constantly worried. Panic disorders cause panic attacks from extreme anxiety. Obsessive Compulsive disorder is a type of anxiety disorder that causes one to obsessively clean. Phobias cause irrational fears of things that are generally not dangerous. Disruptive Behavior Disorders are a group of behavioral disorders in which there are patterns of ongoing uncooperative, defiant, and hostile behaviors toward authority figures that seriously impacts a child s daily functioning. Two of theShow MoreRelatedEssay on A Different Type of Special Needs1185 Words   |  5 PagesA Different Type of Special Needs â€Å"†¦all too often, corrections simply has become a last-resort caregiver and we are left to deal with the many concerns society has chosen to ignore, shifting responsibility to the government - in this case, corrections† (Gondles, 2000). Universal health care is a not an attribute of the United States. While health care plans are widely allotted by employers and various private organizations, not everyone has access to these privileges. Obviously, if these uninsuredRead MoreExploring the Different Types of Special Needs Education Essay637 Words   |  3 PagesSpecial Needs In earlier, more primitive civilizations, all persons were expected to be able-bodied in order to stay alive. Those persons who had defects noted at birth were note protected and allowed to die at delivery or in early years. As time progressed, researchers and medical doctors began to study and treat children with disabilities. These actions aided in supporting the live on children that are challenged with disabilities (Reynolds Fletcher-Janzen, 2002) Special needs educationRead More Assistive Technology Essay1078 Words   |  5 PagesAssistive Technology The use of technology in educating children with special needs has widely grown in the past few decades. Individuals with special needs are unique and all have different areas in which they need assistance. Due to the advancements in assistive technology, computer programs, software, and other technology tools, it has become much easier for people to find useful and easier ways to become educated. Because of this, â€Å"technology has changed the way people with disabilitiesRead MoreChildhood Parents And Special Education961 Words   |  4 Pagesdeficiency; but at times, the child may need to receive long- term assistance or accommodation; particularly when entering school. These children can be recommended for special education. Being placed in special education affords children the opportunity to learn at their own pace with all the specific support they need. The children’s needs are met with guidance, patience, and scaffolding. Early childhood parents often have negative perceptions towards special education; resulting in the delay orRead MoreThe Events Of 9 / 11949 Words   |  4 PagesThe tragic events of 9/11, have drastically added to the myriad of recognized risk types and threats as well as the security recommended and required to counter those threats. The Security Manager must be aware of current threat trends, as well as mitigation strategies for the risks identified by the stakeholders. The mitigation strategies vary depending on the type of asset, location, threats and level of risk. These risks can include the spectrum of natural events and disasters, human-caused eventsRead MoreEssay on nature of construction contracts1528 Words   |  7 PagesFor this assignment the writer is going to discuss the nature and types of construction contracts and will explain the legal responsibilities of the various parties involved in the design and the construction process. Using different types of sources an explanation to the basic principles of contract law and how they apply. From doing this there will then be an explanation to what extent standard forms of contract are special types of contract. Contract that has been chosen is the JCT 2005 standardRead MoreThe Importance of Education for Children with Disability Essay1464 Words   |  6 PagesDisability INTRODUCTION The importance of education for all children, especially for those with disability and with limited social and economic opportunities, is indisputable. Indeed, the special education system allowed children with disability increased access to public education. Apart from that, the special education system has provided for them an effective framework for their education, and for the institutions involved to identify children with disability sooner. In turn, this promotes greaterRead MoreThe Assessment Span Across All Classroom Settings975 Words   |  4 PagesAssessments span across all classroom settings; whether it is a general education classroom or a special education classroom, assessment always seems to be a vital part of teaching. There are several types of assessments used across the field of education, including formative and summative. Therefore, there are different ways to approach assessments in every classroom. I believe that assessments are used to guide instruction in the classroom and also to improve student achievement. Teachers canRead MoreChildren with Special Needs in Education1079 Words   |  4 PagesSpecial (adj.): better, greater, or otherwise different from what is usual. Children with special needs have some form of disability whether that be a learning, behavioral, physical, or emotional disability. These children need certain accommodations to help them reach their academic and social goals in school. There are many different types of disabilities, Dyslexia, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, Mental retardation, Autism Spectrum Disorders, and each one has a completely different effectRead MoreImproving Educational Results For Children With Disabilities795 Words   |  4 Pagesis not what inclusive is looking for. The purpose of this writing piece is to make one more familiar with the rights of inclusion as it relates to students with special needs, the program and pl an for helping these types of students, and ways the classroom can better help these types of students. Students with disabilities or special needs students have certain rights available to them. In the â€Å"Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 2004† Congress found: â€Å"Disability is a natural part of the

Advertising and Promotion A Predominant Place

Question: Describe about the Advertising and Promotion for A Predominant Place. Answer: Target Market: Bluefish Fashion is occupying a predominant place in the field of retail industry. Providing fashionable women clothes in varieties of colorful designs is the primary purpose of Rainbow for drawing customers attention. As female shows their interest in fashion, Bluefish has targeted female from the age group of 18 to 40. Slogan: Looks never goes without fashion, show your own level Logo: Caption: Smart clothing for good living Print Advertising: Let spring bring to your look Bluefish is perfect for those women who wants to present themselves different amidst commmon. We are here to provide colourful cloths in affordable price range to the people of various cultures and backgrounds. Women of 18 to 40 age group can can easily get varities of clothes from us. Ranbows western collection will give you a presentable outlook. Rainbow is here for providing you online delivery as well. People from remote areas can easily access our services. Billboard: Radio Script: A beauty contest has been arranged at the premier hall. A girl with green dress was looking stunning. She gave a presentable introduction by using flowery words. Judges showed their appreciation after having a wonderful presentation from that girl. After that, another girl entered into the camp with royal blue colored dress. She was having dark complexion. Still judges paid their special attention to that girl due to the wonderful dress. Judges showed their splendid expression and wanted to know the secret of this beauty. The girl said its because of bluefish. At the end of event the girl lifted the trophy of beauty contest. Television Story Board: Background: It is a cloudy atmosphere where a boy is waiting for his girl friend under a tree and enjoying the scenic beauty of stream The girl entered into the scene with a red colored dress. She kept a soft touch at the shoulder of the boy. The boy at that time lost himself with the wave of stream. After beholding his girl friend, he got amazed. She was looking like an angle in red dress. The boy asked the girl what is the secret of this look and the girl lifted her finger towards the wave of stream and said.look at the Bluefish. They hold their hand; stepped ahead towards the stream. News Release: Bluefish comes as a spring for the young generation. Around 75% of the women from different cultures and background have purchased Bluefish products and services. Women from 20 to 25 age group of women have showed their interest for using the variety of products and services of Bluefish. Western dresses are available in affordable price range. The CEO of Bluefish stated in a press conference we have designed our products for the people of different cultural backgrounds. We are trying to give a different look to the young generation by providing various fashionable cloths, be it western or classical. Our service providers are here to provide best services to the customers by maintaining an effective customer relation. Affordable price range is not only the USP of Bluefish. We love to deliver quality products to our customers as well. Funk (2013) opined currently the target market of Bluefish is getting vast and wide day-by-day. Starting its journey from United Arab Emirates, this particular organization has widespread wings in multinational countries. Hanafizadeh (2012) stated that the products demand has been raised widely. The organization has received a more than 80,000 appreciations on behalf of customers from Facebook. More than 60,000 target consumers have showed their opinion regarding the business strategy and policy of Bluefish. Presentation to class: (Referred to ppt. for the presentation) Reference List: Funk, T. (2013). Advertising and Promotion. InAdvanced Social Media Marketing(pp. 65-74). Apress. Hanafizadeh, P. (Ed.). (2012).Online Advertising and Promotion: Modern Technologies for Marketing: Modern Technologies for Marketing. IGI Global.

The Invisible Man Review Essay Example

The Invisible Man Review Paper Essay on The Invisible Man My first review here, not strictly judge:) The alternative is such an alternative.  © Internet  «If something looks like a duck, quacks like a duck, is waddling like a duck, and there is ample evidence that this is a duck, then we are something duck and call  »Ã‚ © Alan and Barbara Peace and when thats on the fence wrote WOOD - they had in mind?  © Lenore Goralik We will write a custom essay sample on The Invisible Man Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Invisible Man Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Invisible Man Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Chuck Palahniuk the man known to most that wrote Fight Club by David Fincher who then made his legendary film. BC was a protest against the system, Tyler Durden (IMHO the best role of Brad Pitt, for his entire career) was a protest Invisible -. It is different. Its like a book for the book. No, not even that. This is a book for ideas. Thats how it was written, by whom it was written only confirms this. In Palahniuk had ideas. A lot of. Different, sometimes somewhat contradictory. He wanted to bring them. Implement it as part of a book very difficult. Chuck found a way out. He pitched the book. I broke into a bunch of smaller fragments, stories. And then shuffled. He even changed the names of the heroes, gracefully, in accordance with the plot, discreetly wiping the connection between the stories-fragments. And then he drew back as if stitching thread of logic, all these fragments into one. Its starting to notice the closer to the middle, when it was involved, when there was an interest, passion to unravel the mystery. Author protect themselves from all sides in the beginning of the book, he wrote: You Nichrome not understand, you will have a lot of questions, so it is conceived not be discouraged.. Honestly I thought so be it, but not, in principle, after reading all more or less clear. But thats up to the middle of the book there is little clear, only some scraps of conclusions can be drawn. In the middle of the the book namely, on page 186, the reader is waiting for a shock. At this point, do you think its so unexpected, thats just brilliant. And then you realize no, not a genius, because writing a book case, you can do anything you want. Lost grace, because sleek progress can be made only in limited circumstances. When there are no restrictions -You can make any move, let alone choose the elegant and unexpected of them can even fool. Its like writing a book on the face of the old transvestite sailor sitting in a dark basement for a gay bar, somewhere in the south of Seattle. And leading filosfsky conversation about life with green rat, which is not a rat at all, but the former dwarf dog, who has survived eight plastic surgery. What? You can come up with a bunch of unexpected moves and despite the absurdity of example sentences me to bring in a little history kazhloy his idea. Total freedom, you can carry a nonsense, you can mock the reader. But this does not detract from the other virt ues of the book. The relationship between people (a vivid example of the relationship of her parents and SG), in my opinion, the author specifically brought to the absurd to the extreme point of the possible. To show in detail. Thank you looked disgusting. But it is vital. There is something to think about. The book is interesting in itself, it origialna, it has the right to life, but exclusive. Those. if someone will write (probably already written) book based on the same principles it is empty, it is not necessary. Because Invisible book for the sake of ideas, and that it is valuable. Its like Drink vodka Roma Voronezh is also a book for the sake of ideas, quite different, nothing to do, but the principle is the same, and the second such should not be 8/10 .

Free Essays on Montana Hemp

hemp can and will thrive from as far north as Alaska to the southern tip of Florida. â€Å"Estimates of costs and returns for fiber hemp offer what they consider to be a conservative profit per acre of $272.04. This is based on a six-ton-per-acre harvest, the volume now produced per acre in Canada†(1). Some agriculturists believe that land in the United States could produce as much as eight to ten tons per acre resulting in an even higher per acre profit. In addition farmers will not have to use herbicides, fungicides, or pesticides since the plant grows extremely well without them. â€Å"Seventy percent of Montana adults who responded to a December survey said they supported the cultivation of hemp for industrial purposes. At least twenty-nine nations, including Canada, France, England, Germany, Japan, and Australia, allow farmers to cultivate the non-psychoactive crop for its fiber content†(5). Each country uses its hemp industry for various purposes, from research to making raw materials for resale or export. The United States is only allowing the growth of hemp for research at this time while other countries are exporting its product for a healthy profit. â€Å"Hemp can be grown only with permission from the federal Drug Enforcement Administr... Free Essays on Montana Hemp Free Essays on Montana Hemp The Farmers High Hemp is not pot and does not represent hippies and free love. â€Å"Industrial hemp and marijuana are both from the same species, but are distinguished by the level of THC, the substance which causes a high from smoking marijuana. Marijuana contains levels of THC which can be greater than 10 percent, while the level of THC in hemp is less than 1 percent.†(2). â€Å"By definition hemp is an annual plant belonging to the Nettle family. They have green flowers, toothed leaves and a rough, hollow stem†(6). Hemp is native to central and western Asia and is cultivated in both temperate and tropical regions. It thrives best in humid climates having rich soils. In other words hemp can and will thrive from as far north as Alaska to the southern tip of Florida. â€Å"Estimates of costs and returns for fiber hemp offer what they consider to be a conservative profit per acre of $272.04. This is based on a six-ton-per-acre harvest, the volume now produced per acre in Canada†(1). Some agriculturists believe that land in the United States could produce as much as eight to ten tons per acre resulting in an even higher per acre profit. In addition farmers will not have to use herbicides, fungicides, or pesticides since the plant grows extremely well without them. â€Å"Seventy percent of Montana adults who responded to a December survey said they supported the cultivation of hemp for industrial purposes. At least twenty-nine nations, including Canada, France, England, Germany, Japan, and Australia, allow farmers to cultivate the non-psychoactive crop for its fiber content†(5). Each country uses its hemp industry for various purposes, from research to making raw materials for resale or export. The United States is only allowing the growth of hemp for research at this time while other countries are exporting its product for a healthy profit. â€Å"Hemp can be grown only with permission from the federal Drug Enforcement Administr...

Spelling Isnt Magic

Spelling Isnt Magic Spelling Isn’t Magic Spelling Isn’t Magic By Mark Nichol Perhaps no aspect of written language engenders more consternation or trepidation than spelling. There’s even supposedly a clinical term for the fear of misspelling words: ortographobia. (Wait isn’t that spelled wrong?) Unless you were a spelling-bee champion and perhaps in spite of that distinction you might at least occasionally become flustered at the prospect of having to write a word without the confidence that you’ve spelled it correctly. And it’s probably caused you some embarrassment, or at least a pang of self-consciousness: Many poor spellers think they’re less intelligent than spelling whizzes. (That word can be spelled â€Å"wiz,† too; it’s actually a variant of the abridgement of â€Å"wizard.†) Get over it. Spelling skills aren’t highly correlated with intelligence level, and good spellers seem to be born, not made; taking all the spelling tests in the world isn’t likely to place you among those who write without fear of misspelling. And consider these two significant obstacles to orthographical optimization: First, the English language, more than any other, is replete with confusing, counterintuitive, and contradictory spelling rules. Second, spelling by example is increasingly fraught with peril, given the sad decline in care taken in editing books and newspapers (although magazines seem to remain immune to such deterioration in standards) and the preponderance of poor writing on Web sites and in email, chat and texting environments. So, if you’re a poor speller, and you’re up against a native tongue that defies logic and a world in which good writing seems to no longer be highly valued, what do you do? Relax. You have several allies: The dictionary: You could look it up. If I had a dollar for every spelling question I’ve seen in comments on Web sites about writing and editing, I could buy each of the inquirers a pocket dictionary. (Or, better yet, send them a link to www.m-w.com and pocket the cash.) Complication: Neologisms, assuming they survive faddishness to take their place in the lexicon, are years away from inclusion in the next edition. And where do you open a dictionary to if you don’t know the first letter of the word? Also, various dictionaries may differ in preferred spellings. These are minor points, though. Let the dictionary be your friend. Spell-checking programs: Your word-processing program’s built-in schoolmarm will come to your rescue, and you don’t even have to bring it an apple. Complication: Sometimes it’s wrong. Again, this is a petty quibble. Common sense: â€Å"Born,† or â€Å"borne†? (Originating from, or carried by?) â€Å"Affect,† or â€Å"effect†? (To impact or to fake, or to create an impression or influence a result?) â€Å"Ensure,† â€Å"insure, † or â€Å"assure†? (To guarantee, to take precautions, or to convince?) Complication: Common sense sometimes isn’t all that common. And variant meanings can overlap among more than one similar word (as with the â€Å"-sure† words). Finally, this class of words homophones and near homophones constitutes only a fraction of the troublesome words in our language. Ultimately, though, the best defense against the offense of misspelling is to be a stringent scribe: When you review your writing (you do review your writing, don’t you?), assume that it is a capital offense to misspell a word, and act accordingly. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Fly, Flew, (has) FlownFlied?Confusing "Passed" with "Past"How Do You Pronounce "Mozart"?

Pablo Picasso Artworks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Pablo Picasso Artworks - Essay Example The essay "Pablo Picasso Artworks" attempts to portray the reasons Picasso painted and why he changed the movement. He was a Spanish sculptor, stage designer, playwright, printmaker, ceramicist, and painted who lived between 1881 and 1973. He was an influential artist who helped develop and investigate many varieties of styles. ). For instance, he co-founded the Cubist movement in the 20th century. He is recognized with Marcel Duchamp and Henri Matisse as artists who revolutionized printmaking, plastic arts, ceramics, painting, and sculpture. Picasso showed unusual artistic ability from his early years. Through his childhood and adolescence, he painted in a realistic manner. At the beginning of the 20th century, he changed his painting style after experimenting with various theories. Picasso’s work is categorized into movements. There are the expressionism, cubism, and surrealism. Picasso’s expressionism can be further categorized into Blue period, Rose period, and Afri can-influenced period. Cubism is can be classified further into Analytic cubism and Synthetic cubism. There are many differences in the two painting. The differences lie in the painting style used. Picasso used expressionism in the Drunk Woman is Tired, while, in Girl in Chair, he used cubism and surrealism. In the Drunk Woman is Tired, Picasso is expressing his feelings of a real situation. In the painting, a drunken woman is asleep. The woman is emaciated and poor. She has no place to go. Picasso used the painting to express his sympathy to her.

Technical Report about Zigbee Network Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Technical Report about Zigbee Network - Essay Example Zigbee is a set of specifications that facilitate a low cost, low consumption power, low data transfer load and non-complex wireless mesh network. Zigbee protocol has been standardized by IEEE. In this paper, the basic attributes of Zigbee networks shall be discussed along with the network topologies, applications and components. The protocol shall also be studied with reference to the OSI model to highlight the layers where it is defined. Table of Contents Abstract ii List of Figures iv 1. Introduction 1 2. Background 1 3. Components of Zigbee Networks 3 4. Applications of Zigbee 5 5. Network Topologies of Zigbee Networks 5 6. Zigbee Specifications in OSI Model 7 7. Conclusion 8 References 9 List of Figures Figure 1: Zigbee comparison with other wireless technologies 2 Figure 2: Zigbee network in a smart home 3 Figure 3: Coordinator, Router and end-devices 4 Figure 4: Types of network topologies of Zigbee standard 6 Figure 5: OSI layers comparison with the definition of Zigbee in th e model 7 Zigbee Networks and Specifications 1. Introduction Technology has intervened to an extensive degree in the lives of humans. The intervention has made man rely on technology for his business, as well as domestic needs. The trend of transforming regular houses into smart homes has been a field of interest for researchers around the world. Gohn (2007) stated that the advancement in the domain of wireless networking and information technology has made an age-old dream come true of automating one’s house with a centralized source of control. The innovative technology that is responsible for leaping wireless technology to another level of automation is known as Zigbee. The report focuses on the components and network topologies that develop the standard and facilitate communication with devices that are placed within a close range. Section 2 discusses the background and overview of the Zigbee standard. Section 3 includes the components of a Zigbee network while Section 4 discusses the applications of the respective standard. Section 5 includes the network topologies that are followed by the standard and Section 6 defines its placement in the OSI model. 2. Background Several technologies have been developed in the past years that are based on different levels of bandwidth, ranges and degrees of power consumption. Some of the common technologies to provide connectivity with different devices around a smart home have been Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and WiMax. Leopold, Dydensborg and Bonnet (2003) provided the information that bluetooth is considered to be the first technology in the domain of Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) that gained extensive recognition and acceptance. Leopold, Dydensborg and Bonnet (2003) stated that Bluetooth offered omni-directional communication that led to the desire for a smarter technology after some years of its common usage. Stevanovic (2007) provided the information that Zigbee Alliance introduced a new standard with the nam e ‘Zigbee’. Zigbee is a standard which is meant for communication between embedded devices placed in a limited range. It was recognized as a standard under IEEE 802.15.4. Gohn (2007) stated that the main aim behind the standard was to facilitate wireless connectivity between devices such that it would possess the following attributes: Low complexity Low cost Low consumption of power Two-way communication Low load of data transfer Lonn and

The Ideal Society Essay Example for Free

The Ideal Society Essay In its altruistic sense, the government acts as an instrument of representation of the people who have formed it and therefore has the responsibility to govern society as an epitome of all wills unified into a single essence. However, a government does not necessarily possess power, since power is mediated or delegated by society itself to a select group of leaders that use such power in order to benefit the community as a whole. Still, in the long run, as society evolves from its crude state where no set of laws and morals govern human condition, the individual learns to commune with the other and learn to harmonize the human condition. From human experience, social laws are formed and these laws become the basis for the formation of a culture. It is through value-ideas and the word culture is in itself a finite segment in which prominent events are included. In a primitive society, man is concerned with the environment and experience around it. From these habits and practices, it becomes a cultural norm that acts as a basis of living. On the other hand, society remains communal in terms of daily activities. These cultural precepts, in the crude sense, act only as guidelines or moral markers for human beings to regulate and base their actions upon. Breaking such norms correspond to specific punishments, depending on the gravity of the crime. These become the basis for the formulation of established laws and norms in society and as it continually evolves into a deeper and larger aspect, more perspectives are taken into account. In a basic precept of society, there are no sets of laws and moral norms to guide human act. Man first establishes a communal society in which everybody benefits from labor produced as a whole. In each communal group, there are no perceptions on race, gender, or color. Rather, the perspective lies on the group itself (tribe). This society lives in harmony with little or no thought in individual freedom. However, as society develops, with the need for private property and division of labor, the human race then adopts institutions of law for the protection of their rights. In addition, man is engaged in frequent competition and also becomes heavily dependent upon fellow men. Their individualistic essence is lost and there is a looming threat on mans freedom. Yet, by abandoning individual claims in order to join together through a generally accepted social agreement or contract, individuals can preserve their individuality and at the same time enjoy their freedom. Individuals submit to the rule of the general will—the collective agreement which protects individuals from being superseded by the will of others and ensures that this agreement is protected and obeyed because the majority becomes the authors of the law. As the progression of history treads on its usual path, it is inevitable for the human race to stratify and improve its prevalent political and social systems in order to adjust with the demands of industrial and scientific progression. Naturally, the evolution of the human race coincides with the development and diversification of ideas and concepts. Society however, remains on its crudest form, even with the presence of new ideas and perspectives. For individuals basic essence of self-need remains the same and as long as individuals remain such, society can never change. Not every aspect of government is perfect but in essence, the idea remains good and noble. However, once these structures are put into context, there are still some gaping holes with regard its structure. The prevalent government forms are as follows: Democracy, Despotism, Anarchy, Monarchy, Theocracy, and among others. A Monarchical government is one of the oldest forms of societal control through the ruling of the noble elite. However, the evidence through history suggests that the monarchy further instigates social class struggle, oppression, and abuse. Theocracy has the same effect though society is controlled by the religious elite. Anarchy is the complete opposite of the government, basing from the simple precept that humans are motivated by selfish desires and thus no form of government can adhere or address the needs of the many. Democracy is probably the closest form of an ideal government in a given society since its main ideals give emphasis on sovereignty and equality and liberalism. Society is organized through a single, governing body that has the supreme authority to uphold and enforce the laws which society has created. This type of government is separated by three powers that have distinctive qualities in terms of authority, scope and power so as to prevent abuse and dereliction of duty. In terms of individual subjectivity, French political philosopher Jean-Jacques Rosseau in his work The Social Contract discusses the natural inclination of man to develop ‘social contracts’ that represent simultaneously the idea of the whole and individual need: â€Å"Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole† (Rousseau 2002, p. ). From this premise, societal behaviour naturally acts according to the contribution to the good; that is, the general will acts as the supreme law of the land because of equality it tries to espouse. Like any other government however, we cannot say Democracy is the ideal state of society; rather, it is close to the ideal societal structure because of its advocacies on freedom, equality and liberty. Unlike the authoritarian rules of monarchy, theocracy, plutocracy or any other form of government where authority comes from a single person or single group, these kinds of governments are only applicable to societies in turmoil or chaos. Democracy allows a sense of individual freedom wherein it coincides with the greater good. In order to satisfy the basic human nature of individuality, an ideal government never takes for granted or abuses the individual spirit through constant tyranny and dictatorship. In addition, an ideal government provides stability and organization in a specific society it governs upon; the people itself is the government, and the representatives they elect are servants who fulfil their duties by addressing the needs of the people and country.

President George W. Bushs Use of Pathos, Logos, and Ethos Essay

Throughout George W. Bush's political career he has implored the use of Aristotle's tripod, which we like to call it. This tripod is a rhetoric which implies that persuasion relies on three things, which are ethos, pathos, and logos. Logos is devoted solely to logic and reason. While on the other hand, pathos deals with attitudes and beliefs. Perhaps the most important one which pertains to George W. Bush is something called ethos, that is to say the branch of the tripod which deals with the personal strengths of the speaker and most importantly his character. Throughout his political journey he has showed the use of pathos, logos, and ethos time and time again, but the one of which he is commonly known for is ethos. The instances in which he has demonstrated them are countless, but I will recall but three. The first event took place on the day of September 14, 2001 at 'Ground Zero', three days after the attack of the World Trade Centers. The third instance was on September 20, 2001 during his Address to a Joint Session of Congress. Lastly, was the State of the Union Address in Washington D.C. Which was held on January 29, 2002. At 'Ground Zero' on September 14, 2001, President George W. Bush did many things to restore the confidence of the rattled and scared population. Unity was a key role in the success of this speech. The whole time that he made his speech his arm was wrapped around a firefighter at the scene which not only showed ethos, but also made them look like good friends and it showed a sense of stability and unity, â€Å"Throughout most of his speech, he kept his arm wrapped around a lead firefighter working at the scene,† (Docan.) In addition, he said how the local area was connected to other people who where hurt ar... ...n D.C. On January 29, 2002, at 'Ground Zero' on September 14, 2001, or at his Address to a Joint Session of Congress he has used many of Aristotle's ideas in order to instill trust and assurance back into his people. Works Cited Bush, George W. George W. Bush State of the Union Address. 29 Jan. 2002. . Bush, George W. President Declares â€Å"Freedom at War with Fear.† Address to a Joint Session of Congress. 20 Sep. 2001. . Docan, Tony. Ethos, Pathos, and Logos Applied: George W. Bush Speaking at 'Ground Zero'. 22 Apr. 2002. . Orren, Gary. Gore vs. Bush Why It's All Greek to Me. 2000. .

An analysis of The Flea written by John Donne Essay

The flea, written by John Donne is another poem containing love, sex and religion. One of John Donne’s characteristics is to always include these three main subjects in his poems. The Flea represents lust, but a lust with respect for women. The subject of this poem is about a couple of lovers lying in bed. He wants to take her virginity away from her. In essence, the meaning of this quote: â€Å"And in this flea our two bloods mingled be† means that the flea has bitten both lovers and that their blood is mingled in the flea. The act of having sexual intercourse is considered to be an exchange of bodily fluids, not necessarily being all about love and lust. The lover also feels some kind of jealousy because the flea has already mingled with her before their marriage, and he has not, or in the poem referred to as to befroe â€Å"woo†. The vocabulary used in this poem is quite old, I would say it dates back to the 17th century, it does not contain a lot of complicated words, but the old English used made it necessary to translate the poem in a more contemporary language. Imagery is widely present. â€Å"two blood mingled be† is very clear link to exchanging bodily fluids, the equivalent of having sexual intercourse. Another clear link to the sexual side is â€Å"And pamper’d swells with one blood made of two† The flea symbolizes a different thing every stanza. In the first stanza, the flea represent the two lovers united together in the flea, â€Å"This flea, you and I† is a metaphor simply stating what the greatest part of the poem is about. The flea contains both their blood, and in it, they are together. Then in the second stanza, the flea is not simply them being together, but it means the whole world to them. In the third and last stanza however the flea’s symbol is that of sin and suddenly gets demoted to simply being a flea again. â€Å"And cloister’d in these living walls of jet† immediately cretes an image of a small, dark place, most probably in this case being the inside of the flea. There is quite a lot of repetition in this poem, especially â€Å"Mark but this flea, and mark in this† creates an emphasizing effect and attempts to get the readers attention on the flea. The structure is mostly consistent throughout the whole poem, except for the last 3 lines. The poem is a closed-form poem, and the rhyming pattern is AABBCCDDD. † This, is, thee, be† in the first stanza clearly shows this rhyming pattern is present in the poem. The effect of this rhythm is that makes it easier to remember this poem, as it in some way sounds like a song when the rhythm is followed. The tone in this poem is one of deep intimacy and curiosity, especially in the first stanza; the tone is one of curiosity. He is jealous of the flea that already has mingled their â€Å"bloods†. â€Å"And this, alas! Is more than we would do.† Suggests that the lover finds it a pity that they did not have intercourse yet, but it doesn’t bring him down so to speak. In the second stanza however, the tone changes from curiosity to pity for the flea and is more impassionate, as in the second flea it becomes clear that the woman wants to kill the flea because it has her blood already. The lover presents an argument and tries to seduce her into not killing the flea seeing that she would committing 3 sins as she would be killing â€Å"three sins in killing three† the flea, the lover, and herself. So it also carries some sadness with it. In the third and last stanza the tone is set to a more playful mood again. Sinfulness in this poem is clearly present. To stress the flea’s innocence, â€Å"Wherein could this flea guilty be?† It changes the image of the flea to that of just an insect again, that is not smart enough to realize what it has done. Overall, the tone is a lot like the process of sexual intercourse. It has the foreplay, and then it builds up to the climax and finally relaxes again. The first stanza represents the foreplay, a small thing such as the flea sucking the blood of both, with a sexual connotation â€Å"it suck’d me first, and now sucks thee† is a playful connotation of for example intimate kisses. Then it builds up in intensity as the man attempts to persuade her but fails at protecting the innocent flea’s life; finally the woman kills it, which would be the climax. The final stanza is simply reflecting upon what just happened and the pace slows down again, the r elaxation. To conclude this essay, I believe this poem is about two people who deeply love each other and the lover tries to persuade the woman into losing her virginity to him. This poem is about the intimate relationship, love, and sex and religion. Religion as in the marriage bed and marriage temple and not having sex before â€Å"woo†. It refers to human nature as all of us have the same desire and feelings in us. Most of us will find their true love at some point and experience the mingling of their blood. Not necessarily of course, but I believe that for most of us this is true.

An Inconvenient Truth vs. the Great Global Warming Swindle Essay

Is our planet headed for irreversible disaster? Every reputable scientist in the world believes it is. Left unchecked, global warming’s negative effects on our natural environment could have catastrophic consequences not only for our planet and wildlife but for mankind as well. What is Global Warming you might question? Well, Global warming is caused when a greenhouse gas known as CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere from by burning fossil fuels and is then trapped causing the global temperature to rise more than normal. Many might be thinking that this is a good thing because then it would be longer summers but it is actually quite frightening. Having our population past 7 billion people today has quite the impact on our planet. Burning fossil fuels such as oil and coal gives us electricity to power our factories and run our vehicles but it does emit tons of CO2 into the atmosphere. Even breathing gives off CO2. There is however a natural cause of this as well. The decaying leaves in autumn or forest fires also give off CO2 just as all living things do when they die. The natural levels of CO2 in our atmosphere in the past 600,000 years have been at a non-harmful level, proven by the ice cores collected from the great ice sheets. The argument that was less convincing was the Inconvenient Truth. Although it does have truths into it about how humans are emitting tons of CO2 into the air but Al Gore’s argument ignores some information. The information that is ignored is the natural causes of carbon dioxide emissions as well as the natural fluctuations in temperature that the planet normally has. Even though the burning of fossil fuels has had a small impact on this situation, there still is scientific evidence that humans are not the only cause of Global Warming. There is also the case that Al Gore forgot to mention and that is the fact that the Earth’s climate is not driven by carbon dioxide, man-made or natural. Having CO2 not be the cause of Global Warming, the cause would have to be solar activity, which regulates cloud formation, and  includes solar winds and sun spots. The most concerning part of The Inconvenient Truth is that it uses Al Gore, a recent U.S president as their spokesperson rather than an actual scientist. The reason I believe that Al Gore is used is because he was a country’s leader for a few years so more people would be inclined to believe him rather than the people who were interviewed in The Great Global Warming Swindle. I have found The Great Global Warming Swindle to be more believable because the producers of the film have more resources and data as opposed to The Inconvenient Truth that has just charts. The Great Global Warming Swindle has actual scientists and science professors with information but although they had no data, they seem to be more believable. If Al Gore had actual people come and speak for him that are experts in the field of climatology or otherwise, I would have found his documentary to be more believable. Even though I believe that CO2 is not the cause of Global Warming, it should still be taken into consideration as to how much we put into the atmosphere because it is

Free Global Imbalances Informative Essay

Free Global Imbalances Informative Essay Brief by the United Nations University, some countries in the region were undergoing a positive economic advancement. The report reveals that some African countries richly endowed with natural resources were recording unprecedented rates of economic growth as a result a price boom generated by the growing demand for raw material and fossil energy from China and India amongst others (1). However, the report reveals that after the crisis, the price of oil and many other primary commodity items fell sharply, and reverted to tear pre-boom levels. The prices of most mineral ores, in particular, declined considerably in response to the sluggish in international markets (1). The long-term dreams of the resource endowed states of attaining industrial and scientific revolutions based on the exports of raw materials came to an abrupt end. The continent experiences a paradoxical situation of having plenty of resources and being the poorest and least developed continent in the world. The contin ent relies on foreign exchange earnings from the exports of locally produced goods. The foreign exchange rates, which are greatly affected by the economic and financial crisis resulting from the global imbalances, greatly determine what the continent receives in return. Similar scenarios were witnessed in the Latin American countries. Conclusion It is worth noting that most of the developed countries currently exhibit low economic growth rates compared to the developing countries. As Peters, et al (11) observed that many countries including the United States experience negative growth whereas countries like China and India still maintain positive growth in real GDP in 2009. A significant impact that global imbalance has is that it leads to excessive foreign exchange reserve. The question as to why many countries including the developed ones continue to improve on their current account status while the US deteriorates should be the governments main task. On the other hand, what the developing countries need to understand, especially those in Africa and the Latin America, is that they should not continue with their economic dependency principle. The countries have adopted a routine of exporting their products to their former colonial states. Besides, the colonial governments established education systems that could only endow the natives of these countries with limited technical knowledge that could be used to transform the raw products into consumable goods locally thereby calling for export. These systems should be abolished and the governments should embark on inventive and innovative educational systems.

Overview of Federal Elections in Canada

Overview of Federal Elections in Canada Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy within a constitutional monarchy. While the monarch (the head of state) is determined by heredity, Canadians elect members of parliament, and the leader of the party that gets the most seats in parliament becomes prime minister. The prime minister serves as the head of executive power and, therefore, the head of the government. All adult citizens of Canada are eligible to vote but must show positive identification at their polling place.   Elections Canada Elections Canada is a nonpartisan agency that is responsible for the conduct of federal elections, by-elections, and referendums. Elections Canada is headed by the chief electoral officer of Canada, who  is appointed by a resolution of the House of Commons. When Are Federal Elections Held in Canada? Canadian federal elections are usually held every four years. There is fixed-date legislation on the books that sets a fixed date for federal elections to be held every four years on the first Thursday of October. Exceptions can be made, however, especially if the government loses the confidence of the House of Commons. Citizens have several ways to vote. These include: Vote at the polls on election dayVote at a local advance pollVote at the local Elections Canada officeVote by mail Ridings and Members of Parliament The census determines Canadas electoral districts or ridings. For the 2015 Canadian federal election, the number of ridings increased from 308 to 338. Voters in each riding elect one member of parliament (MP) to send to the House of Commons. The Senate in Canada is not an elected body. Federal Political Parties Canada maintains a registry of political parties. While 24 parties fielded candidates and received votes in the 2015 election, the Canadian elections website listed 16 registered parties in 2017. Each party can nominate one candidate for each riding. Often, representatives of only a handful of federal political parties win seats in the House of Commons. For example, in the 2015 election, only the Conservative Party, the New Democratic Party, the Liberal Party, the Bloc Quà ©bà ©cois, and the Green Party saw candidates elected to the House of Commons. Forming the Government The party that wins the most ridings in a general federal election is asked by the governor-general to form the government. The leader of that party becomes the Prime Minister of Canada. If the party wins more than half the ridings- thats 170 seats in the 2015 election- then it will have a majority government, which makes it much easier to get legislation passed in the House of Commons. If the winning party wins 169 seats or fewer, it will form a minority government. In order to get legislation through the House, a minority government usually has to adjust policies to get enough votes from MPs of other parties. A minority government must constantly work to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons in order to stay in power. The Official Opposition The political party that wins the second-highest number of seats in the House of Commons becomes the Official Opposition.

Inductive Reasoning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Inductive Reasoning - Essay Example Instead, a correct solution is achieved by applying a normatively appropriate rule f inference. Normative systems are often applied to formal reasoning problems in order to define solutions as right or wrong, such that these problems are then construed as tests f correct and fallacious reasoning. Hence, these problems are designed to measure the extent to which participants bring to the laboratory an understanding - and ability to apply - the relative normative principles. In the case f deductive reasoning research, the relevant normative system is formal logic. Participants are given some premises and asked whether a conclusion follows. Under strict deductive reasoning instructions, they are told (a) to assume that the premises are true and (b) to draw or approve only conclusions that necessarily follow. As observed elsewhere (Evans, 2002), this widely used method was developed over 40 years ago when belief in logic as a normative and descriptive system for human reasoning was very much higher than it is today. In spite f the method, much evidence has emerged to support the conclusion that pragmatic factors play a large part in human reasoning. We say "in spite of" because standard deductive instructions aim to suppress precisely those factors that dominate informal reasoning: the introduction f prior belief and the expression f uncertainty in premises and conclusions. In research on statistical inference, a similar story is found. People are asked to make statistical inference on the basis f well-defined problems, in which relevant probabilities or frequency distributions are provided, and their answers are assessed for correctness against the norms provided by the probability calculus. Research in this tradition has been mostly conducted by researchers in the "heuristics and biases" tradition inspired by the work f Danny Kahneman and Amos Tversky (Gilovich, Griffin, & Kahneman, 2002; Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982). This results in an arguably negative research strategy that is similar to much work on deductive reasoning. That is, researchers show primarily what people cannot do (conform to the principles f logic or probability theory) and only secondarily address what people actually do. Indeed, one f the most common explanations for why intelligent, educated individuals often fail to reason normatively is that they use informal reasoning processes to solve formal reasoning tasks. For example, notwithstanding instructions to the contrary, reasoners often supplement the information they are provided with background knowledge and beliefs, and make inferences that are consistent with, rather than necessitated by, the premises. If this is the case, it is reasonable to suggest that we study these processes directly, by giving our participants tasks that allow them to express these types f behaviours freely, rather than indirectly, via the observation f poor performance on a formal task. (Vallee-Tournageau 2005) The argument for doing so becomes even more compelling when it is understood that performance on any given reasoning task

Channels for Specific Audinece Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Channels for Specific Audinece - Essay Example In addition, 33.1% of all households were composed of individuals living alone, of which 6.2% was someone 65 years of age or older. The average household size in Raleigh was 2.30 persons, and the average family size was 2.97 persons. Raleighs population in 2000 was evenly distributed with 20.9% below the age of 18, 15.9% aged 18 to 24, 36.6% from 25 to 44, and 18.4% from 45 to 64. An estimated 8.3% of the population was 65 years of age or older, and the median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.0 males; for every 100 females aged 18 or older, there were 96.6 males aged 18 or older.† (http://www.wikipedia.com). 1. Renters. There are no specific data about the population profile of renters. According to statistics renters have less annual income than home owners. The media chosen for renters are newspapers and more specifically the â€Å" News & Observer† which is the largest daily newspaper of Raleigh, â€Å"Carolina† which is a monthly newspaper distributed for free so it can reach a large audience and â€Å"Triangle Tribune† in order to reach the Afro-American community. The internet will also be used as media channel for renters and more specifically it will be the New Raleigh which focuses on night life, restaurants etc. TV will be also included and more specifically the WUNC-TV because it shows the popular EastEnders comedy on Sunday nights – a day that most people stay at home because Monday is a working day. 2. Women who are owners of small business. The restaurant will use newspapers for reaching this target group and more specifically all the free newspapers like Independent Weekly, Carolina Journal and The Slammer. Free newspapers have the advantage that they are distributed to areas where lots of people gather i.e. subways etc. The Slammer has the advantage that is available at local

Why the Gender Wage Gap Persists in Australia Term Paper

Why the Gender Wage Gap Persists in Australia - Term Paper Example In other words, gender wage gap is a phenomenon in which females get lower salaries compared to their male counterparts in similar professions in the same organization. It is seen across the world and no country seems to be free from it. Even in advanced countries like Australia, America and Great Britain, gender wage gap is a fact rather than a myth. Gender wage gap is severe in Australia despite the fact that Australia succeeded recently in appointing its first woman prime minister. The gender pay gap is experienced at every level in the workplace in Australia, the land of the great Fair Go. In 2010, on average, women lag some 17 per cent behind in pay for equal work or work of same value and in some sectors, like finance and insurance this gender pay gap expands to a ripping 32 per cent. It is regularly reported that the top 200 companies listed on the Australian Stock Exchange pay their female Chief Financial and Chief Operating Officers on average 50 per cent less than their mal e equivalents (Dr. Stone, 2010). In Australia, any effort made to â€Å"decrease the gender wage gap would be significantly associated with an increase in women’s hours of work† (Vidyattama et al, 2009, p.13). In other words, organizations force the women employees to work more hours if they demand for more wages. Many of the Australian organizations are of the view that the productivity of men and women are different and therefore it is difficult for the women to deliver same results if they work same hours as that of men. There are many reasons cited for the widespread gender wage gap in Australia. However, gender factor and industry segregation are two of the major reasons for the gender wage gap in Australia. Gender factor as a reason for the persistence of gender wage gap in Australia An artifact of economic, industrial relations, social and cultural factors, combined with the biological and psychological attributes of all involved in decisions before and in the w orkplace. As much as action is taken in the legal and political arena to create equality, the players in the industrial relations system, consciously or not, both male and female, say that they have helped to (re)construct the gender wage gap (Christine, Ph.D, 2006). According to a report released by National Centre of Social Economic Modeling (NATSEM) in 2010, the gender factor accounted for 60 per cent of the wage gap between men and women (Australia's gender wage gap 'costs $93b', 2010). As in the case of other countries, one of the major reasons for gender wage gap in Australia is the wrong perceptions about the less productivity or fewer abilities of women employees compared to male employees. Biologically, it is believed or assumed that men are stronger both physically and mentally than women. There are many cases in which women succeeded in showing equal or more mental abilities than men. However, the general perception about women abilities in excelling in critical positions is very weak. That is why Australia forced to wait till recent times to have its first woman prime minister. It should be noted that countries like Israel, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka had women prime ministers in the twentieth century. But Australia forced to wait till twenty first century to have its first woman prime minister because of the wrong perceptions of the Australian public about the capabilities of women. It should be noted that India has a woman president at present for the first time in its history. Moreover, Germany also has a woman chancellor at present. In short, other countries pushed Australia far behind in recognizing the abilities of women. It should be noted that even women CEO’s in Australia are not ready to pay equal salaries to men

The Issues Facing Mercedes Benz Cyprus Developing Conceptual Framework Business Essay

The Issues Facing Mercedes Benz Cyprus Developing Conceptual Framework Business Essay The project concentrates on the issues facing Mercedes Benz Cyprus developing and implementing an efficient and cost-effective conceptual framework for measuring and managing sales performance. As a concrete outcome of this research, a roadmap and a website for non technical business users will be developed, giving them the capability to apply the conceptual framework to measurable and manageable business activities. The project provides evidence that indicates successful application of measuring and managing sales performance techniques through the use of reports, trainings, communication capabilities and presentation skills. It creates a new political and organisational challenge for the staff of the organisation which in its turn must learn to interact fast and effectively in order to achieve their targets. The main topics that emerged from the research are defined in derived conceptual framework based on the comprehensive review and analysis of the different models and frameworks that can be found in performance measurement literature. Substance considers the external and internal influences impacting on a sales organisation and how management team and staff can offer an actively sought process to monitor business performance on an on-going basis and to generate recommendations for changes. The research indicates that there is no single model or process for developing performance objectives and measures, nor is there a process that will guarantee good results. It has been essential to synthesise and extend the existing models and frameworks with the aim to produce the most suitable conceptual framework based on the size, kind, and available resources. Additional it is difficult to become a successful implementation of a sales performance measurement management system without connecting with a blended training activities based on the culture of continuous improvement with apply of personal professional development of the stakeholders supporting them to identify their weakness for improvement. Preface Award My target award is Doctorate in Professional Studies Development and Implementation Issues for Managing Sales Performance. Sales Performance is the basic term under which this project focuses. I propose to outline a general focus on performance with particular reference to automotive industry. The project report will provide a dynamic, systematic and permanent conceptual framework on management and measurement of sales performance from the view of the business user for the Mercedes- Benz Cyprus. The final product will be a practical user-friendly document and a website, based on sound research, for non technical business users supporting them to measure and manage sales performance. It will provide practical and useful information with real business examples and arguments for measuring and managing sales performance. Furthermore, it will serve as a standard and quick reference for business users, monitoring and evaluating tools and methodologies that are critical in measuring and managing sales performance. The website will be an online learning support area for where you can find online material to support the subject of sales performance together with discussion areas. It is also anticipated to use this programme as an opportunity to my continuous learning and development in the area of sales performance. My favourite motto from the Greek, Athenian statesman, lawgiver and poet Solon is the motivation for my continuous learning and development, I grow in learning as I grow in years (Plutarch Langhorne, 1857). As Kolb (1984) has documented, we seek to grow and develop because we must do so to survive as individuals and as a world community. Coherence of the Programme The bellow topics provide a rationale for the combination of modules and Recognitions and Accreditation of Learning (RAL) claims on the programme and how are argue for the coherence and viability of this proposed programme. DPS 4520: Review of Learning The module of the Review of Learning provided me with a summary and evaluation of my experiences and education to date, and an analysis of their relevance to my future learning and development. My education and work experiences have impacted my personal development, as I have gained a mixture of both academic teaching and hands, on business experience. Most of my experience comes from progressive roles that I have held with Mercedes Benz. With Mercedes Benz, I have been fortunate to have a career that has spanned multiple disciplines including Information Technology, Quality, Sales and Marketing. I present my learning in a chronological and thematic approach, with the following diagram Figure 1:0 to reflect on my learning, which shows my lifelong learning stages. Starting from school and during my first university degree I have had special focus in Mathematics which helped me to develop my analytical and logical thinking for my doctorate project. My first-degree in Mechanical Engineering, as an Engineer, helped me understand how to bring together knowledge of previously solved problems and understand the current need to combine new solutions. Following my first degree as a Mechanical Engineer I chose, and successfully applied, for a Master degree covering a range of subjects related to Business and Operational Research. The subjects of this Master Degree provided an excellent learning opportunity, and greatly broadened my knowledge and understanding of Business issues. It has had an important impact on my professional and academic development. As Neely (2002) states researchers with functional backgrounds as diverse as accounting, operations management, marketing, finance, economics, psychology, and sociology are all actively working in the field of performance measurement. The research project that I have undertaken for my Master dissertation studies was a Statistical Analysis of Labour Accident in Greece. Statistical Analysis can integrate with the business performance management. It helped me develop my Statistical Thinking. Statistical Thinking is the philosophy of learning and the action that builds the foundation for successful decision making in any process (Britz et.al, 2000). Additionally, my Master Dissertation gave me my first opportunity to develop an appropriate research strategy. It has provided me with the basic framework for my research approach to identify the research methods and data collection techniques which are required for my research project. I have worked in engineering as Plant Manager for a year with one of the most important construction companies in Saudi Arabia and Cyprus. Living in Saudi Arabia strengthened my motivation to work in a hard environment and made me challenge my perception of the importance of simple things in our everyday life and work. Furthermore, working in the desert alone with my team represented a new type of knowledge and a different way of learning for me. I learnt about personal influence and negotiation. Leading a team was an excellent learning opportunity for me, and one that was very different from my past ways of learning. I also gained specific skills including project management and managing contractors, as I was responsible for installing equipments at our sites. Having decided to change my direction, I successfully applied to Mercedes Benz Cyprus for the position of the After-sales Analyst. My education and training from DAIMLER A.G, a highly innovative company with a global presence, has enabled me to understand the practical application of theories, especially at the management level. With the need to improve the stock levels and control the transport cost of spare parts, I developed several information systems. Increasingly I became involved in data analysis and interpretation of data, which strengthened my skills in these areas and helped me to develop my thinking about how information is used. In particular, I began to think about how the end-users of information could influence the way in which that data is produced, interpreted and presented, and the way this can change the meaning of information. The Board of Director of Mercedes Benz Cyprus offered me the challenge of the combined position of Assistant Sales Marketing Director and Quality and Business Manager. My duties have three main directions. Firstly, the developing and managing of the passenger car Sales Marketing business at both the importer and retailer levels; secondly the designing, the developing and implementing of new Information System for supporting the Sales Marketing Business and thirdly the developing, carrying out and maintaining of the Quality systems of the organisation. My current role has provided me with valuable experience and opportunities for learning. This has allowed me to develop a deep understanding of various functions including Finance, Sales Marketing, Quality, Service and Human Resources. Finally, the module Review of Learning helped me realise my strengths and weaknesses and identify the areas in which I need to develop skills. Recognition and Accreditation of Learning (RAL 4): Professional Learning The Master Degree in Business Management and Operational Research has had an important impact on my professional and academic development. It equipped me with skills and experiences such as leading me to the research process starting from clarification of the problem until the presentation of the findings to stakeholders which are necessary for my project. An important subject undertaken was Total Quality Management (TQM) and Operational Research. It was my first experience with tools to control and develop business. Another important subject in my Master was Economics and Law which was directed at understanding the basic notions of modern economic science, with emphasis on microeconomic concepts and macroeconomic analysis. The style of teaching in my Master involved a large element of discussion of issues, and involved a major piece of group project work, which greatly contributed to my understanding of group dynamics. I had actively engaged the discipline in a way not possible simply by listening to lectures and reading textbooks, but through the reflection from the process of research. Writing and peer review helped me to understand my own behaviour within a group situation. Another main subject was Management Information System (MIS) . It helped me understand how to develop, analyse and design computer applications for organisation s and offered me the opportunity to see solutions with the help of technology to some of the most important company problems. Recognition and Accreditation of Learning (RAL 4): Research and Development Project Capability This claim is based on the dissertation topic submitted as part of my Master Degree. The study was broad and high-level, focusing on data mining and data statistical analysis with special information systems. Also it was important in the conclusion to forecast the trends of labour accidents in Greece. In planning and designing my research I found tools and methods which gave me the opportunity to forecast the future and helped me understand the past. My ability to analyse and combine information was developed, and my thinking was expanded in terms of working with very different types of information to those that I had been previously used. The experiences with high-level information systems as main tools in my method for my study represented a new type of knowledge. Moreover in the research project I had an extend focus in data preparation, as most real-life data sets contained missing data. This gave me the challenge of understanding data mining, which is one of the most important rules for efficient and effective strategy. RAL 5: Advanced developments in professional practice I have submitted a claim based upon two projects, the design and development of Information Technology and Business Management Systems. They have been supported by theoretical background, literature review in the area of business and management information systems, areas which constitute integral and essential parts of business performance. Project 1: Design, developing, performing and maintaining the Management Quality System ISO 9001:2000 for the Mercedes Benz Cyprus. Since 2003, with the decision of the Board of Directors of our company, I have been leading the project of designing, developing, implementing and maintaining the Management Quality System ISO 9001:2000 for Mercedes Benz Cyprus. I realised that for this significant project it was essential to improve my knowledge in the subject of the Quality Management. I did an extensive literature review on the subject of quality systems, which brought me up to date with what is current in the field. Based on this literature, I have established a system of monitoring, measuring, analyzing and improving business performance so that service conformity was demonstrated, conformity to the Quality Management. An important part of the implementation was the collection and analysis of appropriate data. I have established statistical methods to determine its overall performance and level of customer satisfaction. These analyses were useful in the conversion of market data into market studies, of quality data into quality reports and of customer satisfaction data into information on customer loyalty. As the company developed, there was a greater urgency to focus around the customers, thus allowing management to invest well and wisely to meet their needs. The only way to achieve such a goal was to analyse the data for business and process monitoring. This information was reviewed at management meetings. Data on service problems were collected throughout the process. This data was analysed and prioritised for investigation. Management identified root causes and proposed long-term solutions and preventive actions with mandates for improvement teams. The data analysed included the following: Customer surveys and complaints Audit findings and nonconformity reports Outputs from data analysis Staff suggestions, complaints, training and competence. The procedure for preventive action included the methodology adopted for instituting such action on processes and work operations, which affect process quality. The flowchart presented in Figure 0:2 below outlines the approach taken by the Company to resolve potential nonconformities. Project 2: Design and developing of the live information system for the Sales Department in Mercedes-Benz Cyprus Main targets to achieve for this project were to design an intelligent information system that can quickly give access to the auto customer details, easily keep contact notes, track and manage car sales opportunities, create summaries and reports, and be intuitive and simple for managing new car sales. An important aim to achieve was the time spent by the Salesman in front of the computer screen would be no more of 15% of the total time. In this way, more time remains available for the salesman to establish contact in an active and purposeful manner. For the design and development of the information system project, it was necessary to have a deep knowledge of literature reviews on the theories and approach on how to build an enterprise data warehouse. The interface of the information system, as shown Figure 0:3, came about from the observation of the way in which waiters take orders through a touch screen monitor. Only one screen in front of the users, without menus, only big clickab le icons which are different from user to user and from level to level.

The Importance of Budgeting and Long Range Financial Goals :: essays papers

The Importance of Budgeting and Long Range Financial Goals Me, being a financial independent have experienced first hand how important it is to keep a financial plan. Using a financial plan I have elevated my savings abilities a long way. Knowing where each dollar is being spent helps the spender to manage each dollar in an uplifting way. In a ten-year plan my goal would have to be to save at least twelve hundred dollars a year which would one hundred dollars each month of that financial plan. Using the persona financial profile assigned by you at the beginning of the year this long-term goal would be possible. Being in college, managing money is very important. Keeping a portfolio and an account of all money spent is a very important step in my keeping my financial situation in good terms. Becoming in debt is another concern of mine. Debt includes, credit cards loans, store credits accounts, or any other form of borrowing money. A large amount of students make the mistake of purchasing things that they have no money for. This is why credit is so bad for students. A personal financial plan is only possible if the independent is focused on what he or she is doing. You have to account for each dollar and not cheat yourself. The importance of budgeting all depends on the independent. If the independent is focused on saving and accounting for their money then it will work! It is needed in each college student’s life. Being in college makes it extra difficult to decipher what you are doing with your money. A greater percentage of students that have used this type of financial program have been successful rather than those, which don’t account for the money that they spend. Having a long-range financial goal can help you all throughout life.

Theories of Ethnocentrism: Social Dominance Theory and Social Identity Perspective

Theories of Ethnocentrism: Social Dominance Theory and Social Identity Perspective Compare and Contrast critically evaluate in light of relevant research and theoretical reasoning A major focus of psychology is in understanding why group conflict, inequality and ethnocentrism occur. Many researchers have developed theories and presented evidence to try and explain these issues and two predominant approaches have emerged. The first approach focuses on the relatively stable personality differences that people show in their general orientation towards ethnocentrism and inequality (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Social Dominance Theory (SDT) proposes that people exhibit different levels of social dominance orientation, a desire to dominate members of other groups and a desire for continued hierarchical relations between groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). The alternative approach focuses on social and situational factors as causes of ethnocentrism. The dominant theory here is Social Identity Perspective (SIP), which is comprised of Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) and Self-Categorization Theory (SCT) (Oakes, Haslam & Turner, 1994). Social Identity Perspective proposes that ethnocentrism occurs when people are depersonalized: they see themselves as members of a salient group rather than unique individuals. This process leads them to adopt a social identity where their ideas, attitudes, values and behaviours tend to reflect norms of their group and their main goal is to see their group as positive and distinct (Turner, 1987). This essay will consider how these approaches define ethnocentrism and will provide an outline of how they explain ethnocentrism. It will then compare and contrast the theories, and consider the strengths and limitations of each with reference to the large body of research in this field. In light of the limitations of viewing ethnocentrism as due to a relatively stable, individual disposition to inequality, the essay concludes that SIP provides a more complete explanation. However, researchers need to consider whether ethnocentrism is due to an interaction of situationally dependent personality factors and social identity factors for a more comprehensive explanation of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism Sumner (1911) originally defined ethnocentrism as â€Å"†¦the sediment of cohesion, internal comradeship and devotion to the in-group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out-group and readiness to defend the interests of the in-group against the out-group† (p. 11). Recent research has defined ethnocentrism as ethnic group self-centeredness and identified six specific aspects that are divided between inter and intragroup expressions (Bizumic, Duckitt, Popadic, Dru & Krauss, 2008). Intergroup expressions of ethnocentrism include a preference for and favoritism given to the ingroup, a tendency to see the ingroup as superior and to only associate with the ingroup (purity) and the belief that exploitation of outgroups is acceptable to promote ingroup interests (Bizumic et al, 2008). Intragroup aspects include that ingroups are cohesive: integrated and cooperative, and that there is strong devotion and commitment to the ingroup (Bizumic et al, 2008). The two theories define and measure ethnocentrism in different ways. SDT emphasizes ingroup favoritism and bias in high status groups, and the allocation of negative social value to outgroups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Ethnocentrism is measured through levels of prejudice, racism, conservatism and other associated concepts, which, although distinct from ethnocentrism, are closely correlated (Bizumic et al, 2008). SIP measures ethnocentrism primarily through ingroup favoritism: the tendency to favor the ingroup in evaluations and allocation of resources (Oaks et al, 1994). Social Dominance Theory SDT was developed by Sidanius and Pratto (1999) and focuses on personality and structural factors as causes of ethnocentrism. The theory argues that individuals differ in their level of social dominance orientation (SDO), which is the desire to oppress outgroups, have the ingroup be seen as superior and dominant, or the extent that an individual endorses group inequalities (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Specifically, SDO is â€Å"a desire for and value given to ingroup dominance over outgroups and the desire for non-egalitarian, hierarchical relationships between groups within the social system† (Sidanius & Pratto, 1994 p. 9). Differences in SDO are argued to make some people more likely to show ethnocentrism and prejudice, and people who have SDO show more negative behaviours towards the outgroup. This is known as differential ingroup social allocations. Illustrating this point, Sidanius (1994) states that people’s ethnocentric orientations and attitudes are due to persona lity and consistent behavioral predispositions (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT also proposes that legitimizing myths maintain ethnocentrism and inequality. These are beliefs, attitudes, values or ideologies that are circulated and justify inequality, as well as continuing the dominance of some groups over others (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). For example, the myth that men have better jobs and higher incomes because they are more assertive and have better leadership skills than women. The second part of SDT is based on the assumption that intergroup conflict and ethnocentrism is due to the way society is made up of group-based hierarchies, which have a hegemonic group at the top which controls money, resources and power, and a negative reference group at the bottom (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). These hierarchies are based on three stratification systems: an age system, gender system, and an arbitrary-set system, where people from high status groups have more power than people in lower status groups. Hierarchies are formed and maintained by institutional discrimination, individual discrimination and behavioural asymmetry (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Institutional discrimination is the rules and regulations of social institutions, such as schools, religions, corporations, businesses or governments, which result in lower status groups having less power, money or other resources. Institutions maintain unequal hierarchies through the use of systematic terror, which is threat or violence directed towards low status groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Individual discrimination is the small, daily discriminations which occur in every setting, and the way desired goods, such as health care, money or power, are allocated to members of dominant groups. These small acts add up and lead to the continued dominance of one group over another (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Behavioural asymmetry is the way people in low status groups behave differently compared to those in high status groups. Examples of this include that ethnocentrism is higher in high status groups compared to low status groups, and there is more ingroup favoritism in high status groups – what SDT calls the asymmetrical ingroup bias. Also, low status groups can show self-handicapping, which is where they perform below their abilities due to self-fulfilling stereotypes or expectations (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Social Identity Perspective SIP is a broad theory of ethnocentrism which includes social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) and self-categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher and Wetherell, 1987). Social Identity Theory SIT proposes that in different situations, people either define themselves as individuals, or as group members: they move along the interpersonal – intergroup continuum (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). SIT argues that people have a collection of category memberships and each membership is represented in the persons mind as a social identity that describes how the person should think, feel and act as a member of that group (Turner, 1987). If a group is important people will internalize the group membership so that it becomes an important part of their self-concept, and they are then driven to achieve positive self-esteem and establish a social identity (they are motivated to establish positive distinctiveness) (Turner, 1987). This self-enhancement is achieved by comparing their group with salient outgroups along dimensions which lead to the most positive representation of their group. SIT proposes that a cognitive processing bias occurs during this process, which results in people minimizing the differences within their group, and exaggerating the differences between their group and a salient outgroup (Turner, 1987). This produces intragroup homogeneity, where behaviour becomes more group focused, attitudes in the group are consensual and people define themselves and outgroup members as â€Å"undifferentiated† members of their social category (Turner and Reynolds, 2001). SIT explains these cognitive processes of categorization and self-enhancement as due to subjective belief structures, which are people’s beliefs about the nature of relations between groups (Turner, 1987). These include the stability and legitimacy of group relations, and the possibility of social mobility psychologically passing from one group to another, or social change, changing how they feel about their group membership (Turner, 1987). Self-Categorization Theory SCT follows on from and elaborates on SIT. SCT focuses on the shift from personal to social identity which occurs when people change from defining themselves as individuals compared to other individuals (when their personal identity is salient), and start to see themselves as group members who are different from members of other groups (when their social identity is salient) (Turner et al, 1987). This social identity is thought to emerge when group categorizations are made prominent. The emergence of this social identity leads to a process called depersonalization, which is where people see increased similarity between themselves and ingroup members and differences from outgroup members, interchangeability with other ingroup members, and see themselves as representative of the group (Turner et al, 1987). The theory argues that whether depersonalization occurs depends on the accessibility and fit of social categories. Accessibility is how accessible the category is, in terms of past experiences, expectations, goals, motives and if the categorization is important for a person’s self-concept (Turner et al, 1987). Fit refers to the way people activate a category which best explains or fits the individual information and stored category information (Turner et al, 1987). Fit is determined based on whether the information fits in a normal or stereotypical direction (normative fit), and whether there is a high meta-contrast ratio: which is when the differences within a group are less than the differences between that group and others (comparative fit) (Turner et al, 1987). Overall, all group processes, including ethnocentrism, are argued to be the outcome of psychological group formation and depersonalization of self. Similarities between Social Identity Perspective and Social Dominance Theory Both theories agree that that group identification is needed for ethnocentrism and influences levels of ethnocentrism (Sidanius, Pratto, van Larr & Levin, 2004). SDT argues that although people with particular personalities are more likely to engage in ethnocentrism, social identification is also needed (Sidanius et al, 1994). The theories also agree that ingroup bias and favouritism can be modified under specific conditions (Sidanius, Pratto, Mitchell, 1994). Similarly, both theories recognize the importance of the salience of ingroups and outgroups (Sidanius et al, 2004). Significantly, minimal group experiments show that if intergroup distinctions are made salient, peoples SDO levels are more likely to influence whether they discriminate against outgroups, and many SIP experiments have show the importance of salience in changing group relations Sidanius et al, 2004). Both theories emphasize the â€Å"dynamic† ways people construct their social identities (Sidanius et al, 2004), based on a salient ingroup, or group distinctions based on race, nationality, class, ethnicity, or arbitrarily-set categories. Sidanius et al. , (2000) also argue that SIP finding of ingroup favoritism in minimal groups is similar to SDT assertion that people have a predisposition to form ingroup – outgroup distinct ions and to discriminate against outgroups based on these categorizations. Also, although the theories differ on the importance assigned to social and contextual factors, both agree that they can influence ethnocentrism. SIP clearly emphasizes social factors such as self-categorizations and contextual factors including the salience of groups, and the stability and legitimizing of group relations (Turner, 1987). SDT also considers social identification, contextual factors such as status differences, connections with social institutions and social roles, cultural factors and structural relations (Sidanius, 2000). Although SDT argues that SDO is a relatively stale personality variable, they do agree that levels of SDO can correspond with shifts in the intergroup context (Sidanius et al, 2004). SIP also argues that ethnocentrism can vary based on the context and structural position of groups (Turner et al, 1994). Levin (1996) found that when differences between groups of Jewish Israelis were made salient, high-status Jewish Israelis were more positively orientated toward inequality than lower status Jewish Israelis. However, when thinking about Israeli-Palestine relations, the groups did not differ in attitudes towards inequality. Further, Schmitt, Branscomb and Kappen (2003, study 3) found that the participants who believed inequality favored their university (ingroup) were much more positive towards the inequality than the other participants, showing that the social-structural position of groups influences attitudes. Differences between Social Identity Perspective and Social Dominance Theory Although there are some general similarities between these theories, they contrast on many specific points. Focus on Personality or Social Factors as Causing Ethnocentrism The major difference between these two theories is their focus on either personality or social factors as causing ethnocentrism. SDT argues that the personality variable SDO is the main factor predicting ethnocentric behaviour (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP argues that identification with the ingroup and self-categorization as a group member through a process of depersonalization leads to ethnocentrism (Reynolds, Turner, Haslam, and Ryan, 2001). There is evidence for each argument. Evidence that ethnocentrism is caused by levels of SDO. There is evidence that SDO scores are correlated with attitudes and beliefs related to ethnocentrism. SDO was positively correlated with racism, sexism, conservatism, ethnic prejudice, nationalism, patriotism and cultural elitism in a diverse sample of 19,000 participants from 13 samples (Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, and Malle, 1994). People with higher levels of SDO also reported that they intended to work in more hierarchy-enhancing professions as opposed to hierarchy-attenuating professions (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). There is also evidence that support for discriminatory policies, strict laws, military programs, war; the death penalty and belief in legal retribution are positively correlated with SDO (Sidaius, Lui, Pratto and Shaw, 1994). High SDO scores and dominance-oriented prejudice have also been found to be related to personality characteristics such as being disagreeable, vindictive, hostile or seeing social inequality as â€Å"they way it should be† (Lippa & Arad, 1999). However, there is no evidence that SDO causes ethnocentrism, only that some aspects of ethnocentrism are closely related to a dominance orientated personality measure. There is also evidence that SDO predicts outgroup discrimination and negativity in minimal group studies. Sidanius and Pratto (2004) found that people who scored higher on SDO had a greater desire for social distance from the outgroup, were less willing to cooperate, showed a tendency to accept group boundaries and a desire to dominate other groups. They concluded that although ingroup favoritism is important, SDO is needed to fully explain ethnocentrism. Evidence against the assertion that SDO causes ethnocentrism. Recent evidence suggests a different explanation for these results. Schmitt et al (2003) argue that the results of experiments showing SDO is related to ethnocentrism are actually due to the way specific forms of inequality are salient for participants as they fill in SDO measures. Schmitt et al (2003) tested this in study 1, and found that SDO was only correlated with racism if race was a salient social categorization at the time. Study 2 provided further support, showing that sexism scores only predicted SDO when gender was salient, and racism scores only predicted SDO when race was salient. Therefore, when people are completing a measure of SDO, they are actually expressing their attitudes towards inequality specific to salient social groups rather than pre-existing, stable individual dispositions towards inequality (Schmitt et al, 2003). Evidence that ethnocentrism is caused by self-categorization. Tajfe, Billing, Bundy and Flament (1971) conducted the first minimal group studies which led to SIP. In these experiments participants were divided into one of two groups of the basis of some meaningless dimension, and then allocated resources to members of the two groups. Despite the minimal conditions, participants still acted in an ethnocentric way, showing ingroup favouritism. Additionally, when given the choice of maximising joint benefits (for the ingroup and outgroup) or maximising comparative benefits, participants tended to chose the option that gave the ingroup comparatively more than the outgroup. This discrimination in minimal groups has been found over a range of cultures and dimensions, and shows that categorization of people into groups can produce discrimination (Turner, 1986). General evidence for SIP over personality theories of ethnocentrism comes from Haslam and Wilson (2000), who found that personal beliefs were more predictive of prejudice when they reflected stereotypic beliefs shared within an in-group. Perreault and Bourhis (1999) found that ingroup identification was the only factor which predicted discrimination in minimal groups, and that a range of personality variables had no impact Role of SDO. Another key difference between the theories is that while SDT describes SDO as a relatively stable personality variable, SIP argues that it varies in different situations, in different groups, and based on identification. Reynolds, Turner, Ryan, Mavor and McKone (2006) looked at the degree that personality variables (SDO and authoritarianism) can be modified using identification with either a pro or anti-feminist source. They found significant changes in levels of feminism and SDO in the different conditions, which shows that SDO can be influenced. SDO scores of individuals did not correlate well between the two phases of the experiment if participants had seen the pro-feminist message, and measures also showed that implicit prejudice and stereotyping varied in the same way as SDO. SIP provides a clear explanation for these and other results which find SDO to be stable, by arguing that attitudes can be stable in contexts where similar self-categorizations are made salient, but can change when shifts in categorization occur (Reynolds et al, 2006). Verkuyten and Hagendoorn (1998) made either a personal or national identity salient and looked at ingroup stereotypes of the Dutch’s treatment of minorities. They found that personality variables were correlated with prejudice in the personal identity condition, and ingroup stereotypes were correlated in the national identity condition. Also, when ingroup norms were of tolerance and equality, participants showed far lower levels of prejudice. This supports the SIP discontinuity hypothesis, showing that people’s attitudes change depending on what identity is salient, and ethnocentrism is determined by people’s salient self-categorizations. Reynolds, Turner, Haslam and Ryan (2001) conducted similar studies, testing prejudice when participants personal, gender, age, or national identity was salient. They found correlations between personality and prejudice in the age and gender conditions, but not in the personal or national conditions. They also found that the relationship was strongest when the gender identity was salient and weakest when a national identity was salient. So, the power of personality to predict ethnocentrism changed in the different conditions. Reynolds et al (2001) argue that SDO cannot be the psychological mechanism underlying ethnocentrism and inequality if it varies with group identity. In contrast to these results, Sidanius et al (1994) measured ethnocentrism with indexes of differential ingroup social allocation (DISA) in minimal groups, and found a direct relationship between SDO and three of the DISA indexes. Even after the effects of gender, self-esteem and ingroup identification were controlled for, subjects with higher levels of SDO displayed a greater desire for social distance from, and were less willing to cooperate with the outgroup. This demonstrates that, independent of the effects of group identification, people who have higher levels of SDO are more likely to show ethnocentric behaviour and attitudes. Explanations for varying levels of SDO across situations and in groups. A related difference between the two theories is their different explanations for the variability found in SDO scores. SDT has suggested that changes in SDO may be due to the fact that people with high SDO are more likely to identify with their group and be affected by group factors (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP has argued that SDO is a group attitude which varies in different situations (Reynolds & Turner, 2006). SIP argues that personality differences may be correlated with ethnocentrism when personal identity is salient, but group attitudes and beliefs will predict ethnocentrism when a social identity becomes salient (Reynolds and Turner, 2006). A number of studies have tested whether shifts in self categorization from personal to social identities affect the relationship between ethnocentrism and personality variables, and a few key experiments are outlined below. Sidanius, Pratto and Mitchell (1994) looked at minimal group members who evaluated each other on positive and negative domains and found that, in line with both theories, ingroup identification significantly predicted discrimination. However, people who identified highly with their group and had high levels of SDO showed more ingroup favouritism, suggesting that SDO is a key predictor of ethnocentrism. Buzimic et al (2007) tested whether personality factors affect discrimination directly or indirectly through influencing people who have higher levels of these personality variables to identify more strongly with their ingroup. They found that ingroup identification was a significant predictor of discrimination, and that it got stronger when the ingroup-outgroup categorization was more salient. Individual differences in levels of SDO did not predict discriminatory behaviour, and there was little evidence that some people have a preference for hierarchal relations between groups. In one condition, where discrimination would lead to an unequal hierarchy, participants actually showed fairness and cooperation. Although people with high SDO did not move as far towards equality as the other participants here, if there was a basic drive for inequality and dominance participants should have discriminated strongly in that condition. This study provides clear evidence that SDO does not influence ethnocentric behaviours. Explanations for gender differences in ethnocentrism Another important difference between SIP and SDT is their explanations for the gender differences in ethnocentrism. SDT takes an evolutionary stance, arguing that these differences are due to biological differences in the reproductive strategies of men and women (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). That is, men need to have lots of economic resources to attract young, attractive women, while women are focused on attracting men with resources to support their offspring (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT sees this difference as stable, and not affected by structural or contextual factors, and predicts that men will almost always be more favorable towards inequality. A limitation of this explanation is that it does not explain the major changes in women’s roles that have occurred in developed countries over time (Reynolds et al, 2000). SIP argues that the lower levels of ethnocentrism in women are not due to gender differences in SDO, they are due to the same processes which result in all lower-status groups having lower levels of SDO – the different implications that the inequality has for each group (Schmitt et al, 2003). That is, women have lower levels of ethnocentrism because gender inequality results in disadvantage for them, and men have higher levels because this inequality is beneficial for them (Schmitt et al, 2003). As such, these differences should vary depending on the specific inequality which exists between the groups. Schmitt et al (2003) investigated these competing explanations. They found that men and women did not differ in levels of SDO after they considered gender inequality in both directions, and did not differ in their overall comfort with specific forms of inequality – which contradicts SDT. Gender differences in SDO were mediated by sexism, suggesting that the difference is due to women and men’s different positions in the social structure. They also found that men felt more positively about inequality that favored men, while women felt more positively about inequality which favored women. There was no correlation between gender and other types of inequality, showing that gender differences are specific to the inequality that exists between the men and women. Causes of high SDO and ethnocentrism. In contrast to SIP, SDT argues that SDO and ethnocentrism develop from three major influences: socialization factors, situational contingencies and temperament (Sidanius & Pratto, 1994). The main socialization factor is group status. SDT argues that because group superiority seems compatible with hierarchy-legitimizing myths, it seems appropriate for people in high-status groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). There is substantial evidence that group status is related to SDO. Pratto and Choudhury (Pratto, 1999) found that people in higher status groups had higher levels of SDO, whether group status was based on gender, ethnicity or sexual orientation. SDO has also been found to increase with the status of the major racial groups in America (Sidanius et al, 1999). Other factors which lead to SDO and ethnocentrism include gender, and temperament or personality factors. Evidence for this shows SDO declines with empathy and increases with aggression. Education is also thought to be involved, with higher levels of education correlating with lower SDO and prejudice generally. However, this seems to contradict other SDT predictions, as you would expect that people with higher levels of education would be in higher status groups. Finally, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, religiosity and employment status are also thought to be involved. Sidanius and Pratto (1994) found that these demographic variables accounted for 21% of the variance in SDO scores. However, across samples and nations, only gender and group status were reliably related to SDO. Explanations for differences in ethnocentrism in different status groups Although both SDT and SIP agree that group status effects ethnocentrism, they differ in their explanations of why this is so. SDT argues that group status directly effects people’s SDO, and group differences in acceptance of legitimizing myths account for group differences in SDO (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP argues that SDO scores reflect attitudes towards the specific types of inequality that are salient (Schmitt et al, 2003). Schmitt et al (2003, study 4) investigated these competing explanations. They found that men and Whites were more pro-inequality than women and ethnic minorities. However, they found that gender differences in SDO were totally mediated by sexism, but not by racism, and racial differences in SDO were mediated by racism, but not by sexism. So, group differences in SDO are not indicative of group differences in a general orientation towards inequality, but are reflective of group differences in attitudes relevant to the specific inequality existing between groups. Explanations for outgroup favoritism Another important difference between the two theories is their explanations for outgroup favoritism, and their predictions of when outgroup favoritism will occur. Many studies illustrate that low-status group’s show outgroup favoritism (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT developed the asymmetrical ingroup bias hypothesis, which states that high-status groups will show more ingroup favoritism because it is easier and more valuable for them, and that low-status groups should show outgroup favoritism to support the social hierarchy (especially people with high SDO) (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). In contrast, SIP argues that the legitimacy and stability of intergroup relations determines when people will show outgroup favoritism (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). If group boundaries are permeable and inequalities secure (stable or legitimate), people will identify with, favor and seek to move into the high status group (Turner, 1986). If group boundaries are impermeable and secure, low status group members will accept their status and try to seek positive distinctiveness along other dimensions (Turner, 1986). If group boundaries are impermeable and insecure (that is, unstable or illegitimate), the low status group will seek to change the inequality and will show ingroup bias (Turner, 1986). There is a lot of evidence supporting these three predictions, including a meta-analysis of ingroup bias conducted by Mullen, Brown and Smith (1992) which found that while high status groups evaluated their group on dimensions relevant to the inequality, low-status groups tended to show greater ingroup favoritism on less relevant attitudes – finding alternative means of achieving positive distinctiveness. Sidanius and Pratto (1999) tested group asymmetry in ingroup favoritism and found that Blacks had higher levels of ingroup bias than Whites, consistent with SIP. Also, the SDT prediction that low-status group members will act against their own interests and show outgroup favoritism to support the unequal social system has been disconfirmed by much SIP research which shows that low-status groups will only favor high-status groups if they either identify with the group or see the inequality as stable and legitimate (Oakes, Haslam & Turner, 1994). Finally, the SDT prediction that all high-status group members will show ethnocentrism and support for inequality is problematic: ethnocentrism has been found in many different groups, of both high and low status (Reynolds & Turner, 2000). Comfort with inequality in the direction it exists in society. SDT argues that people are more comfortable with inequality as it exists in society than in the opposite direction because it is justified by hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths; and that people high in SDO are even more likely to accept inequality it its general direction (Sidanius and Pratto, 1994). In contrast, SIP argues that people’s social identities affect comfort with inequality – people are more likely to be comfortable with inequality which favors their ingroup rather than the outgroup (Schmitt, Branscomb & Kappen, 2003). Schmitt et al (2003, study 3) tested these contrasting predictions by asking participants to report on how comfortable they would be with four different types of inequality in both possible directions. They found that SDO did not influence participants comfort with inequality, and could not account for comfort with inequality as it exists compared to the opposite direction. These findings support SIP, showing that attitudes toward inequality depend on the type and direction of inequality being considered. The importance of ingroup favoritism or outgroup degradation in ethnocentrism. The theories also differ in the importance they assign to different aspects of ethnocentrism; SIP focuses on ingroup favoritism in producing cohesion, devotion and discrimination (Turner, 1986). In contrast, SDT focuses on personality variables which lead to outgroup negativity (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT argues that SIP is limited in the scope of behaviours it can explain: ingroup favoritism and a desire for positive distinctiveness cannot explain the way some people or groups strive to dominate and oppress outgroups, and cannot explain the occurrence of oppression, ethnic wars, slavery and other such events (Sidanius, Pratto & Mitchell, 1994). A number of studies support SDT in their criticism of SIP. Brewer (1979) found that most intergroup discrimination in minimal groups was bias in favor of the ingroup rather than denigration of the outgroup. Hewstone, Fincham and Jaspars (1981) investigated when people will take money away from ingroup and outgroup members in minimal groups, and found less ingroup favoritism and that the predominant strategy used was fairness. Mummendey et al (1992) investigated allocation of negative outcomes to the ingroup and outgroup and did not find any evidence of ingroup favoritism and that fairness was the main strategy used. However, when group size and status were manipulated in this experiment more negative allocations were made to the outgroup when the ingroup was a minority or of low status, and ingroup favoritism was the most used strategy in low status groups (Mummendey et al, 1992). These results support SIP, showing that ingroup favoritism occurs in negative domains when the ingroup is particularly motivated to achieve a positive social identity. Reynolds, Turner and Haslam (2000) also found that ingroup favoritism is not restricted to the positive domain; that participants allocated negative resources to outgroups when traits fit the ingroup-outgroup categorizations. Conclusion After considering similarities and differences in two major theories of ethnocentrism, and highlighting strengths and weakness of each, a clear conclusion emerges. SDT proposes an explanation of ethnocentrism at the individual, group and societal level, and is very good at highlighting individual differences in the desire to dominance others (Huddy, 2004). Sidanius and Pratto (1999) also provide clear evidence for how minority members are discriminated against and the way individual, institutional and other structural factors maintain inequality in numerous studies. Although it cannot explain ethnocentrism, SDT predicts and demonstrates that people high in SDO show more prejudice and endorse measures which maintain inequality. 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