China a Cultural Analysis - Free Essay Example

Introduction China is one of the world’s major countries. It’s situated in central and East Asia. It’s known because of its rich population, a rising economic super power and its different style of management. China is a country with golden history. Especially, its Chinese Revolution brought a lot of progress in all its sectors. . World politics is becoming even more dynamic and different blocs are emerging in the world. These blocs are of multiple nature, among them are the countries, which are although included in developing countries, but they are trade winners. Their G. D. P rate is increasing continuously. So is the case with china. China is an emerging nation. Experts say that its GDP rate will cross the GDP rate of America until 2001. With more than 4000 years of history, China has the oldest civilization. In Ancient times, Xia Tribe, establish a state in the area of the Huang He River (Yellow River) basin. The tribesmen, believing that this was the cen ter of the world, called this state the â€Å"Middle Kingdom† and regarded the surrounding areas as peripherals. Thus China has been known by this name even after the 1911 Revolution which abolished the feudal monarchy and gave birth to the Republic of China. Further again in 1949, after a long struggle, the Chinese communist party under the leadership of chairman Mao Zedong led the Chinese people of all nationalities to over throw the rule of imperialism, feudalism, and capitalism, gaining victory for the new democratic revolution and establishing the â€Å"People’s Republic of China†. From then Chinese people took control of their country’s fate and became its masters. For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, major famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocratic socialist system that, while ensuring Chinas sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, MAOs successor DENG Xiaoping and other leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by 2000 output had quadrupled. Main Facts about China Official Name | People’s Republic Of China| Capital | Beijing | Area | total: 9,596,961 sq kmland: 9,569,901 sq kmwater: 27,060 sq km| Population | 1,330,141,295 (July 2010 est. ) | Population growth rate| 0. 494% (2010 est. )| Birth Rate | 6. 89 deaths/1,000 population (July 2010 est. ) | Death Rate| 6. 89 deaths/1,000 population (July 2010 est. )| Currency | Chinese Yuan | Religion | Taoism; Confucianism; Buddhism; Christianity; Islam. | Literacy | total population: 90. 9%male: 95. 7%female: 87. 6%| Source: www. cia. gov Economic overview Chinas economy during the past 30 years has changed from a centrally planned system that was largely closed to international trade to a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy. Reforms started in the late 1970s with the phasing out of collectivized agriculture, and expanded to include the gradual liberalization of prices, fiscal decentralization, increased autonomy for state enterprises, the foundation of a diversified banking system, the development of stock markets, the rapid growth of the non-state sector, and the opening to foreign trade and investment. Now China is characterized as a potential superpower by a number of academics, military analysts, and public policy and economics analysts. It is now the worlds third largest economy, after the United States and Japan. Below is the economic overview of China GDP( Purchasing Power Parity | $8. 789 trillion (2009 est. )| GDP- Real growth rate| 8. 7% (2009 est. )| GDP- Per Capita (PPP)| $6,600 (2009 est. )| GDP- Composition By Sect or| agriculture: 10. 6%industry: 46. 8%services: 42. 6% (2009 est. )| Stock of money | $2. 434 trillion (31 December 2008)| Unemployment rate| 4. 3% (September 2009 est. | Current account balance | $297. 1 billion (2009 est. )| Source: www. cia. gov Culture of China The  Culture of China  is one of the worlds oldest and most complex cultures. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and  provinces. Chinese culture has several distinct elements. In this report we are going to cover the following elements of Chinese culture. Language Religion Values Customs Language(Verbal)[1] Chinese now has earned itself greater status in the World. About one-fifth of the world’s population, or over one billion people, speak some form of Chinese as their native language. The Chinese language has over 400 dialects in continental China alone. The people of each province have a special dialect, and then the people of each city, town, and village have their own special dialect as well. However the official national spoken language of China (except in Hong Kong and Macau) is Standard Mandarin. Over 90% of Chinese people speak Mandarin, but also may very likely speak another dialect. Standard Mandarin has eight dialects. They are Beijing Mandarin Northeastern Mandarin Ji Lu Mandarin Jiao Liao Mandarin Xhongyuan Mandarin Lan Yan Mandarin Southwesten mandarin Jianghuai Mandarin 1. Source:en. wikipedia. org Chinese spoken language The Sinitic languages, often synonymous with the Chinese languages, are a language family frequently postulated as one of two primary branches of Sino-Tibetan. The Bai language may be Sinitic (classification is difficult); otherwise Sinitic is equivalent to the Chinese languages, and often used in opposition to Chinese dialects to convey the idea that these are distinct languages rather than dialects of a single language. There are Chinese spoken languages and the number of people who are using these languages in speaking. Differences between English and Mandarin language There is a very clear distinction between English and Chinese language. The two languages are of two different language families, English comes from Indo-European and Chinese from Sino-Tibetan, this gives rise to many more differences in mode of expression, grammar, syntax, meaning system. The major differences between Chinese and English are as follows. Point of Differences| Mandarin| English| Phonology| It uses the pitch of a phoneme sound to distinguish word meaning. In English, changes in pitch are used to emphasize or express emotion, not to give a different word meaning to the sound. | Alphabet| Chinese does not have an alphabet but uses a logographic system for its written language. | There have specific set of alphabets| Tense ; Verbs| Uninflected language and conveys meaning through word order. | English much information i s carried by the use of auxiliaries and by verb inflections: is/are/were. | Articles| Don’t use| Use Articles| Phrasal Verbs| Don’t use | Use Phrasal Verbs e. g. give in, put on etc. | Source: https://esl. fis. edu Language(Non-verbal)[2] Nonverbal language is the process of communication of sending and receiving wordless messages through gestures, posture, touch or by facial expression and eye contact. Every culture has some form of non-verbal language that conveys certain messages to other people which if not understood, can be quite confusing for the people of another culture. Chinese non-verbal form of communication has a few distinguishing signs which are quite shocking for a culture like ours. For example To show curiosity When Chinese people find something is curious, they may glare blankly at it for too long. For mourning In China, people will cry sadly at the funeral rites. According to Chinese culture, people who don’t cry when attending the fune ral are not filial persons. To show anger When people get angry or irritated over someone’s craziness or foolishness they usually make a circular motion near the temple or ear to show that someone is crazy, because to the psychology, crazy man is something wrong with his brain. But in China it is just a gesture of thinking. To point at something Where we use the index finger to point at something. Chinese people use an open palm. It is considered offensive to point a finger at someone in China. . Source: (Cultural differences in Body Language Huan Jianfei) Religion [3] The Peoples Republic of China was established in 1949. Its government is officially atheist, which viewed religion as emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism. Religious belief or practice was banned because it was regarded as backward and superstitious by some of the communist leaders, from Vladimir Lenin to Mao Zedong, who had been critical of religious institutions. This policy relaxed considerably i n the late 1970s at the end of the Cultural Revolution and more tolerance of religious expression has been permitted since the 1980s. The 1978 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China guarantees freedom of religion†. However, the Chinese government has also banned certain new religious movements such as the Falun Gong and Xiantianism in recent times. At present there are five recognized religions by the state, namely Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism. The religious practice called as Confucianism is now regarded as an ethical and philosophical system rather as a religion. Religious Distribution Description 3. Source:https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Religion_in_china, https://www. mf. org/omf/uk/asia/china/about_china/china_profile, https://www. mapsofworld. com/china/china-culture/religion-in-china. html Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddh artha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha. Buddhism spread from India to China some 2,000 years ago and is the largest organized religion in China since its introduction in 1st Century Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. It is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. It might be considered a state religion of some East Asian countries, because of governmental promotion of Confucian philosophies. Taoism (or Daoism) refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia. The word Tao roughly translates as, path or way (of life). Taoism has a history of over 1,700 years in China. There are numerous Taoist temples and priests in China even now Islam is followed by ten National minorities in Chi na . Islam was introduced in China in the 7th Century and even now there are several mosques in China served by the Imams. Catholicism is the term referring to Christians and churches belonging to the Roman Catholic Church. Catholicism was introduced in the 7th century; it became popular only after the Opium War. There are around 4,600 churches now in China. Protestantism is one of the four major divisions within Christianity. Protestantism gained ground in China with the end of the Opium War and presently there are around 10 million Protestants in China. Values and Beliefs [4] The Chinese people have strong values and beliefs that have been developed for thousands of years. The Chinese are strongly influenced by the Confucian Philosophy. As a result their values and beliefs reflect Confucian beliefs and values. The chief values of Chinese people that can be pointed out are * Moralities: Chinese develop their moralities into several areas: for the nation, for the family, for the friend, for others, and for the society. They have been taught to be loyal to their nation, and even the leader of the nation. * Charity: Chinese believe that all humans are born with kindheartedness, so they treat others peacefully and their ideal society is the world without arguments, fighting, stealing, and robberies. * Ethic of the family: Everybody is raised by the family. The family becomes the center of Chinese peoples life. The influence of the concept is that there are seldom arguments in the family. Children are filial and respect their parents, show love and respect to brothers and sisters. Parents get taken good care by their children when they are old. Veneration for intellectuals: In traditional Chinese social position, the intellectual is always in the highest level, then the farmer, the worker, and the businessman is the lowest. 4. Source: https://cid-b1ed5e535d30c0d7. spaces. live. com/blog/cns! B1ED5E535D30C0D7! 453. entry Chinese business culture and practice The Chinese business practice is vastly different from the Western method that most of us may be used to. Nevertheless, with the reform of Chinese economy in the past 30 years Chinese business practice are now beginning to align with more conventional methods. However, China will always have their own unique business culture and etiquette, given their unique history and background. In this section we are attempting to illustrate the Chinese business culture and practices. This section contains: Geert Hofstede analysis of China, Chinese business customs, management practices, negotiation tactics. Geert Hofstede Analysis of China[5] Geert Hofstede is an influential Dutch organizational sociologist, who studied the interactions between national cultures and organizational cultures. Geert Hofstede found five dimensions upon studying the culture of different societies. Analysis of China by Geert hofstede reveals the following characteristics of Chinese people. Power Distance: This dimension measures how much the less powerful members of institutions and organizations expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. China scores 80 in Power Distance which is very high if compared to other countries of the world. Because of this high score * Decisions are taken mainly by top management. * Decisions taken by top management are readily accepted by employees. * Moving up the corporate ladder becomes very hard. 5. Source: https://www. geert-hofstede. om/hofstede_china. shtml, Cross-cultural challenges when doing business in China by Zhang Zigang Singapore Management Review January 1 2004 Individualism: This dimension measures how much members of the culture define themselves apart from their group memberships. China is low in individualism. Individualism score is only 20. As a result * They follow â€Å"we† concept rather than â€Å"I† concept. * Depend more on groups or institutions to determine what they should do and emphasise loyalty to th e group. * More likely to cooperate with others to avoid risks and reduce responsibilities. Appreciate duty to the group and harmony among its members while pursuing personal goals is viewed rather negatively Masculinity: The value placed on traditionally male or female values and the role differentiation in a society. China scores 66 in Masculinity. This shows there is still differentiation and discrimination between male and female. Uncertainty Avoidance: How much members of a society are anxious about the unknown, and as a consequence, attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. China is low in uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance score is only 30. Therefore- * Managers don’t plan much; when they plan it tends to be much relaxed. * Don’t think much about minute details of the contractual relationship. * More readily accepts change * They prefer more experimental jobs. Long-Term Orientation: A societys time horizon† or the importance atta ched to the future versus the past and present. Chinese people are very long term oriented. Their score in this dimension is 118. * They prefer to know a client well at first then they starts dealing. * Initially focus more effort on building social relations. * Tend to continue relationship with a business partner for a long period of time. Chinese business customs[6] Chinese business customs differ greatly from the west. They have specific decorum for every aspect of business related tasks like greeting, seating, dress code, gift giving, eating etc. Greetings: When greeting each other or meeting acquaintances nodding of the head or shaking hands is acceptable. This applies to greetings between the same sexes and the opposite sexes. A handshake may linger for longer than is normal in Western culture this is a gesture of respect. Dress: Chinese tend to dress formally. Therefore when they say `informal, they expect you to wear a shirt, tie and pants, but never shorts. White is used for funerals it is to be avoided. Red, suggests power, prosperity and authority, and is the preferred color in China. Names: Chinese place the surname (family name) first then the personal name. Women normally keep their own family name. Unless invited to do so use of personal names or nicknames should be avoided. Punctuality: Punctuality is important, as it can be interpreted as a measure of courtesy and professionalism. Gifts: It is appropriate that gifts should be given on the appropriate occasion, such as the farewell banquet or at the conclusion of an important introductory meeting. The gift should be made as a formal presentation to the entire group as a gesture of goodwill and friendship. Extremely valuable gifts shouldn’t be given because; the Chinese may take it with suspicion which can cause undesirable consequences. Additionally, there are certain things that should never be given as gifts. Such as a clock, a handkerchief, an umbrella, or any white flowers . All these objects represent death in the Chinese culture. Business cards: The Chinese are very keen about exchanging business cards. When presenting or receiving a business card, both hands should be used. It is considered rude to write on the business card. It is polite to admire and read what is on the card before putting it away. The business card’s one side should be in English and the other in Chinese. Eating: While eating, the host usually serves food for the guest, introduces the origin of special food and indicates how to eat it. Start eating when the host starts. One may leave food on the plate by making excuses or politely refusing. Drinking: It is customary for guests to drink only when making or receiving toasts. When the Chinese make toasts, both parties are expected to drink. The cup is held in the right hand, and it is polite to place the left hand as if supporting the cup. The first toast is frequently a general one with everyone drinking together, per haps with the arrival of the first dish. After this, it is standard practice for everyone at the table to toast all others. Conversation: Controversial issues like Taiwan, Tibet should be avoided in conversation. Although Japan and China are neighboring countries praising Japan too much in front of Chinese people can make conversation argumentative so this should be avoided as well. Saying ‘No’ is normally regarded as Impolite. So Instead of saying ‘No’ one should respond to Chinese with answers like ‘Inconvenient’ â€Å"Under consideration’ ‘Maybe’ or ‘That might be difficult’ etc. Chinese people also do the same in this case. 6. .Source:https://www. austcham. org/page/china-business/doing-business-in-china/understanding-business-etiquette-in-china/ Differences between business culture of East and West[7] The following table presents some of the differences between how the Chinese and the Western individual s think about culture and values. Cultural Values Expressed| West (America most European countries)| East (The Chinese and Most Asian cultures)| Type of Logic| Linear (More causal relationships and direct associations between A and B)| Spiral (more roundabout and subtle) | Expression of Agreement and Disagreement| More argumentative, willing to express disagreement verbally| More difficult to say no even if one means no, disagreement expressed nonverbally| Communication of Information | More meaning is in the explicit, verbal message. Use of direct language| Meaning is often implied or must be inferred Use of indirect language patterns| Expression of Honesty | More overt, one is more likely to ask the person to speak their mind or get it out on the table | Subtle, nonverbal | Expression of Self | I-oriented | We-oriented| Thinking Orientation | More rule based or based on application of abstract principles such as regulations or laws | Tends to take context and the specifi c situation into account in rule interpretation | The Individual | Has to have rights and greater need for autonomy and individual achievement | Group duty ,preservation of harmony | Nature of the Business Relationship| Less important, tend to substitute relationship for written agreement, superficial, easy to form, not long lasting | Most important business cannot occur until relationship if sound, written agreement secondary to quan xi, hard to form, long lasting| Conflict Resolution | Trial or confrontation, use of lawyers and courts| More mediation though trusted third parties| 7. Source:https://www. legacee. com/Culture/CultureOverview. html Management practice in China[8] Management is a set of activities (Including planning, organizing, leading and controlling) directed at an organization’s resources with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner. Chinese management practice is described in brief below. Planning in China Planning or ganization| Long-term orientation. | Decision Making| Centralized decision making by few people. | Level of Involvement? | Involvement of few people at higher level. | Where are decisions initiated? Decisions flow from the top to down| How quickly are decisions made| Slow decision-making : fact implementation of the decision| How quick is the decision implementation| Quick Implementation| Organizing in China Who is responsible for activities? | Collective responsibility and accountability| How clear are the responsibilities| Clear and specific decision responsibility| Structure of organization| Formal organization structure | Nature of Organizational Culture| Well-known common organization culture and Philosophy| Identification with what? | Identification with the company but not so much with profession| Staffing in China When are people hired ? Young people hired out of school, no mobility of people among companies| How much advancement wanted? | Slow promotion through the ranks| L oyalty is to whom? | Loyalty to the company| How is performance evaluation done? | Very infrequent performance evaluation for new employees| What type of results are appraised ? | Appraisal of long-term performance| How are promotion allowed? | Promotion based on multiple criteria| How is training and development done? | Training and development considered a long-term investment| What is the basis of remuneration? | Lifetime employment common in large. | Level of Job security| High| Leading in China How does the leader react? Leader acting as decision-maker and head of the group| What style of management is followed? | Participative style| How do values of individuals function in teams? | Common values facilitating cooperation| How is confrontation done? | Communication primarily top-down. | Nature of communication| Up-bottom communication| 8. Source: www. amcy5. com/projects/marketing/amcy37. htm Controlling in China Who Controls? | Control by superior| What is the focus of control ling? | Control focus on group performance| Is blame fixing done? | Blame fixing is avoided; rather face saving is done. | Use of Quality Circles| Increasing use of quality control circles| Decision making [9] Decision making is vastly different in western and Chinese business cultures * In the West it is seen as positive if you can gather and process information quickly for rapid decision making. * The Chinese prefer instead to deliberate, even on decisions that may seem simple, which can cause decisions to take a long time * It is unlikely you will convert a prospect at the first meeting * Decisions are unlikely to be made during the meetings you attend * Ask for feedback, discuss the issue and explain your thinking to avoid looking as though you have made a snap decision * Being included in the decision-making process is important to the Chinese culture 8. Source: https://www. rsmi. om/attachments/approved/chinese-business-practices etiquette/en/Chinesebusinesspractices_w. pdf Ne gotiation in China [9] Chinese Negotiation practice contains eight elements they are Guanxi (personal connections) Chinese businesspeople prize relationships among friends, relatives, and close associates. Favors are always remembered and returned, though not necessarily right away. Ignoring reciprocity is considered immoral. Zhongjian ren (the intermediary) An intermediary is essential during meetings with strangers. This trusted business associate connects you with his trusted associate, creating a personal link to your target organization or executive. Intermediaries interpret negotiators’ moods, body language, and facial expressions. They—not the negotiators—first raise business issues for discussion, and often settle differences. Shehui dengji (social status) Casualness about social status doesn’t play among people who value obedience and deference to superiors. Sending a low-level representative to a high-level negotiation can kill a deal. Renji hexie (interpersonal harmony) Relationships of equals are cemented through friendships and positive feelings, generated during months of home visits and long dinners. Any attempt to do business without first establishing harmony is rude. Zhengti guannian (holistic thinking) Chinese discuss all issues simultaneously in apparently haphazard order—emphasizing the whole package over details. Nothing is settled until everything is. This holistic thinking contrasts with Westerners’ linear approach— Westerner’s think sequentially and individualistically, breaking up complex negotiation tasks into a series of smaller issues: price, quantity, warranty, delivery, and so forth. Chinese negotiators tend to talk about those issues all at once, skipping among them, and, from the Western’ point of view, seemingly never settling anything and spawns the greatest tension between negotiating teams. Jiejian (thrift) Chinese bargain intensely over price, padding of fers with room to maneuver and using silence and patience as tactics. They expect both sides to make concessions—often after weeks of haggling. 9. Source: The Chinese Negotiation by John L. Graham and N. Mark Lam Harvard Business Review article Mianzi (â€Å"face† or social capital) A broken promise or display of anger or aggression causes mutual loss of face—disastrous to any deal. Chiku nailao (endurance, relentlessness) Chinese prize relentless hard work. They prepare diligently for negotiations and expect long bargaining sessions. Demonstrate your endurance by asking many questions, doing your research, and showing patience. Suggestion for negotiating with the Chinese * The Chinese are renowned for being tough negotiators. When negotiating one must show compromise so their negotiators feel they have gained concessions. * Only senior members of the group should speak during Negotiations. * Short, simple, sentences should be used when speaking and jargon an d slang should be avoided. * A great deal of research regarding subject matter should be done prior to meeting. * Use of high pressure tactics should be avoided. * Decisions may take a long time. So one should refrain from mentioning deadlines, be patient, show little emotion and calmly accept that delays will occur. Conclusion China is a country with lots of unique features. It is quite unique in many aspects. It has a very long golden history behind it. The history goes beyond even the birth of Christ. It has a very strong and deep-rooted cultural and historical background. In addition to this the country have a very different life style. Its religions, customs, and its society are much different than the other parts of this world. Apart from its social, historical and traditional aspects China has got a unique way of managing things and doing the business. It has its own set of norms and values that are very much deep rooted in its every day life. The Chinese way of managing t he things have got a deep impact of culture on them. Chinese plan, organize and work in a very different manner. Their way of interacting with each other and their way of evaluating each other is also very much different. Chinese give more importance to known material than the material values as they evaluate and get work from others. Chinese management style is very much different than the rest of management styles in the world. Their management style has different criteria of managing the things, doing the things and evaluating the things. There work pattern and working environment is also much more different than the rest working environments of world. Chinese attitudes and there orientation towards management is very much specific and it has got a different way of achieving results. Chinese are very much conscious about their values and it is very much opposite to the west. Chinese give more importance to norms and values than money. In west money is the god but Chinese wi ll never be ready to sacrifice their any of value, norm or tradition just for the sake of money. The final lesson that we can derive from Chinese is that only continuous hard work in a proper direction will lead to happiness and prosperity. There is no short cut to continuous handwork. Appendix Mao Zedong: A Chinese revolutionary, political theorist and communist leader. He led the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism-Leninism, military strategies, and his brand of Communist policies are now collectively known as Maoism. Deng Xiaoping: A Chinese politician, statesman, theorist, and diplomat. As leader of the Communist Party of China, Deng was a reformer who led China towards a market economy. Huang He River: The second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of 5,464 kilometers (3,395 mi). Falun Gong: A system of beliefs and practices founded in Chi na by Li Hongzhi in 1992. Western academics have described Falun Gong as a spiritual movement based on the teachings of its founder. Xiantianism: A religious system that encompasses five religious groups of Chinese origin. They claim to strive for the unification of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. Quality Circles: A volunteer group composed of workers (or even students), usually under the leadership of their supervisor (but they can elect a team leader), who are trained to identify, analyze and solve work-related problems and present their solutions to management in order to improve the performance of the organization, and motivate and enrich the work of employees. Quality circles were first established in Japan in 1962; Kaoru Ishikawa has been credited with their creation. According to Wikipedia there are more than 20 million Quality Circles in China. Case Study-1: Chinese Negotiation Volkswagen (VW), the first overseas carmaker in China, is the only fore ign manufacturer to have been making a profit in China over the past ten years. It all began in October 1984, when VW signed a joint venture agreement with China. One of the country’s first major joint venture agreements, it involved several government authorities, including the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Cooperation (MOFTEC, now MoCom), the State Planning Commission, the State Economic Commission, the Ministry of Finance, the Bank of China (BOC), the Municipal Government of Shanghai, and the China National Automobile Industry Corporation (CNAIC). A manufacturing facility was built in Shanghai, and VW’s partners were Shanghai Tractor and Automobile Corporation (STAC), with a twenty-five percent share, as well as the BOC, Shanghai Trust and Consultant Company, and the CNAIC, which together had a twenty-five percent share. VW was approached by the China National Technical Import Corporation in 1977, and in 1978 a Chinese delegation visited VW headquarters in Wolfsb urg, Germany. The first VW delegation went to Beijing in 1979. So there were six years of negotiations, involving at least seven parties on the Chinese side, and major contracts were negotiated, including a joint venture contract, a technology transfer agreement, articles of association, supply agreements, and a planning agreement. According to Heinz Bendlin, one of the original VW negotiators with China, even in the early days the Chinese behaved courteously. He has commented as follows: I learned in China that foreigners tend to have a typical mode of behavior. They want to achieve results quickly, get answers to all their queries, and immediately come up with solutions to problems. But in China one has to be patient and be prepared to spend considerable time solving problems step by step, or ibu ibu, as the Chinese say. Setting deadlines or showing impatience leads to disadvantages in negotiations. The Chinese like to negotiate in rather large groups. Fairly frequently, th ree or four VW people negotiated with ten to twenty Chinese. However, typically only one would speak while the others took notes. They were all very disciplined. There were times when they would cultivate a friendship, seemingly to manipulate situations. Our Chinese partners also frequently asked us to explain matters several times. This was not a sign of insufficient professional knowledge on their part, but just a tactic, as are the meticulously organized extras during negotiations, such as banquets, toasts, and sightseeing. We should listen carefully to the Chinese. Never try to convince them by saying that only your products or plans are outstanding. Instead, explain the facts and figures as often as they require; explain why you believe yours is the best offer; and explain why you are asking for certain payments. Do not show that opinions are divided on a given topic within your team, and avoid discussions in front of them. They cannot understand such behavior and will inter pret this as a sign that you lack clarity about your concept. Source: https://www. negotiations. com/case/well-managed-negotiations/ Case Study-2: Chinese Culture (Guanxi—Ties That Bind) In 1992, McDonald’s Corporation opened its first restaurant in Beijing, China, after a decade of market research. The restaurant, then the largest McDonald’s in the world, was located on the corner of Wangfujing Street and the Avenue of Eternal Peace, just two blocks from Tiananmen Square, the very heart of China’s capital. The choice of location seemed auspicious, and within two years, sales at the restaurant were surpassing all expectations. Then the Beijing city government dropped a bombshell; officials abruptly informed McDonald’s that it would have to vacate the location to make way for a commercial, residential, and office complex planned by Hong Kong developer Li Ka-shing. At the time, Mc-Donald’s still had 18 years to run on its 20 year lease. A stunned McDonald’s did what any good Western company would do—it took the Beijing city government to court to try to enforce the lease. The court refused to enforce the lease, and McDonald’s had to move. Chinese observers had a simple explanation for the outcome. McDonald’s, they said, lacked the guanxi of Li Ka-shing. Given this, the company could not expect to prevail. Company executives should have accepted the decision in good grace and moved on, but instead, McDonald’s filed a lawsuit—a move that would only reduce what guanxi McDonald’s might have with the city government! This example illustrates a basic difference between doing business in the West and doing business in China. In the advanced economies of the West, business transactions are conducted and regulated by the centuries-old framework of contract law, which specifies the rights and obligations of parties to a business contract and provides mechanisms for seeking to redress grievances should one party in the exchange fail to live up to the legal agreement. In the West, McDonald’s could have relied on the courts to enforce its legal contract with the city government. In China, this approach didn’t work. China does not have the same legal infrastructure. Personal power and relationships or connections, rather than the rule of law, have always been the key to getting things done in China. Decades of Communist rule stripped away the basic legal infrastructure that did exist to regulate business transactions. Power, relationships, and connections are an important, and some say necessary, influence on getting things done and enforcing business agreements in China. The key to understanding this process is the concept of guanxi. Guanxi literally means relationships, although in business settings it can be better understood as connections. McDonald’s lost its lease in central Beijing because it lacked the guanxi enjoyed by th e powerful Li Ka-shing. The concept of guanxi is deeply rooted in Chinese culture, particularly the Confucian philosophy of valuing social hierarchy and reciprocal obligations. Confucian ideology has a 2,000-year-old history in China, and more than half a century of Communist rule has done little to dent its influence on everyday life in China. Confucianism stresses the importance of relationships, both within the family and between master and servant. Confucian ideology teaches that people are not created equal. In Confucian thought, loyalty and obligations to one’s superiors (or to family) is regarded as a sacred duty, but at the same time, this loyalty has its price. Social superiors are obligated to reward the loyalty of their social inferiors by bestowing â€Å"blessings† upon them; thus, the obligations are reciprocal. Source:https://highered. mcgraw-hill. com/sites/dl/free/0072973714/214805/Sample_Chapter03. pdf Reference Articles 1. Cross-cultural challen ges when doing business in China by Zhamg Zigang Singapore Management Review January 1 2004 2. Bond M and G Hofstede, 1989. The cash value of Confucian values, Human System Management, 8, pp 195-200. 3. Hofstede G, 1980. Cultures consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 4. Cultural constraints in management theories. The Academy of Management Executives, 7(1): pp 81-94. 5. Sosik, John and Jung Dong, 2002. Work-group characteristics and performance in collectivistic and individualistic cultures. The Journal of Social Psychology. Washington, pp 5-23. 6. Axtell, Roger E. Gestures. The Do’s and Taboos of Body Language Around the world[M], John Wiley ; Son, 1991. 7. RSM International, Chinese Business Practices and Etiquette Vada Ng, Chinese Business Culture, The Confucius Institute, University Of Western Australia 8. John L. Graham and N. Mark Lam, The Chinese negotiation, Harvard Business Review, October 2003 9. Zhang Zigang, Cross- cultural challenges when doing business in China January 1 2004 10. Huang Jianfei. Cultural differences in Body Language 11. International Business Review 17 (2008) Page no. 141-145

Sociological Imagination Essay - 703 Words

Tierra Hodge Dr. Ngeo Boon Lin Intro to Sociology October 1, 2014 Sociological Imagination What is sociological imagination? According to C. Wright Mills sociological imagination is the ability to see how individual experiences are connected to the larger society. Sociological perspective enables one to grasp connection to history and biography. History is the background and biography is the individual’s specific experiences. C.Wright Mills came up with the idea that in order for one to understand their personal lives the need to look beyond personal experiences and look at larger political, social, and economic issues of others. â€Å"It is the capacity to range from the most impersonal and remote transformations to the most intimate†¦show more content†¦In the documentary Moore shows viewers how terrorists at a prison in Guantanamo Bay receive free government health care. From the experiences of 9/11 volunteers, I understand that the government appreciates their help towards the tragedy, but not enough to guarantee them health insurance. Another example of sociological imagination in Sicko was a woman name Adrian who had cervical cancer. Adrian was denied insurance for her treatments because health care insurance company said she was too young to be diagnosed with cervical cancer. Adrian eventually goes to Canada to receive medical treatment. Canada’s health care is affordable for their citizens. From Adrian’s treatment I understood the struggles some have to go through in order to receive certain medical treatments. The third example of sociological imagination within the documentary Sicko is that the citizens of France, Canada, and the Great Britain, etc. are expected to live longer than Americans. The average French person lives 3 years longer than an American. British people are also said to be healthier than Americans. In order for the American society to become better, we as Americans need to look at the medical treatment in other countries and see what we take for granted and maybe we could eventually be a better health insured country. Sicko was an eye opener. I actually had a talk with one of my friends that attend New Jersey City University, who majors inShow MoreRelatedSociological Imagination636 Words   |  3 Pagesproblems, family problems or an individual just may not be happy. Although, if this person uses their social imagination it may be a little easier for them to cope with their depression. Looking at their problems in a more general perspective helps them realize they are not alone and these are daily problems everyone faces. Sociologist C. Wright Mills quotes â€Å"The sociological imagination enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the innerRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination And Me Essay1343 Words   |  6 PagesThe Sociological Imagination and Me Charles Wright Mills was a writer, a researcher, a teacher, a scholar and a well known sociologist. He was the author of the 1959 book, The Sociological Imagination. This book was poorly received by the sociological community at first, but it is one of the most widely read sociological texts today. The Sociological Imagination and Mills’ other works have had an immense impact on sociology, as he influenced many other scholars and the â€Å"New Left† movement of theRead MoreC. Wright Millss Sociological Imagination1301 Words   |  6 PagesThe sociological imagination, a concept coined by C. Wright Mills, is defined as, â€Å"the awareness of the relationship between personal experience and wider society.† The sociological imagination is not an innate way of thinking, therefore its inverse is commonly referred to as the ordinary way of thinking. People who think ordinarily, do not make connections between what is happening in their own milieu and what is happenin g in the larger society they live within. The memoir of Michael Patrick MacDonaldRead MoreSociological Imagination By C. Wright Mills942 Words   |  4 PagesSociological imagination according to C. Wright Mills (1959) â€Å"enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals† (p.5) Mills in this book of The Sociological Imagination explains how society shapes the people. Mills wants people to be able to use sociological imagination to see things in a sociology point of view, so they can know the difference between personal troubles versus personal issuesRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination By C. Wright Mills Essay1970 Words   |  8 Pagesmay not be within our control, and it takes a toll on our lives. As a person experiences something that is out of their control, it is related back to social forces; this is what the sociological imagination is. C. Wright Mills, author of â€Å"The Sociological Imagination†, explains how the sociological imagination plays a part in human development, and how certain social forces affecting the lives of those who are constantly facing hardships. He explains that the problems that we face as human beingsRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination : C. Wright Mills1822 Words   |  8 PagesC. Wright Mills defines the sociological imagination as, â€Å"what they need, and what they feel they need, is a quality of mind that will help them to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves†. Mills also says that the sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. When I read Chapter One: The Promise from C. WrightRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination : C. Wright Mills907 Words   |  4 Pageslimited to their day to day life and personal experiences that are directly related to them, they cannot see the bigger picture. They do not yet know that the sociological imagination can set them free from this trap and as C. Wright Mills said, In many ways it is a terrible lesson; in many ways a magnificent one.. The sociological imagination is truly an incredible thing. Most people go through life indeed feeling trapped by the personal troubles that plague their lives and some never even considerRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination As Described By C. Wright Mills930 Words   |  4 PagesThe sociological imagination as described by C. Wright Mills is â€Å"the ability to understand the intersection between biography and history or interplay of self and the world.† (13) Mills also describes the sociological imagination by saying, â€Å"we have come to know every individual lives, from one generation to the next, in some society; that he lives out a biography, and that he lives out within some historical sequence. By the fact of his living he contributes, however minutely, to the shaping ofRead MoreSociological Imagination Coined By Sociologist C. Wright Mills1138 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout our lives we encounter numerous personal troubles, no matter big ones or trivial ones. H owever, one may seldom relate their problems in a sociological level rather often try to ascribe the blame to their personal wrongs. In this essay I would introduce the topic of sociological imagination coined by sociologist C. Wright Mills, describing how personal matters have all sorts of interwoven relationships with social issues. It is also important to realize that there are distinctions betweenRead MoreSociological Imagination And How Events Affect A Generation s Way Of Thinking1476 Words   |  6 PagesSociological Imagination The sociological imagination is an empathetic approach to understanding an individual by examining their biography (this includes all life experiences and upbringing) as well as the historical events that took place during their lifetime. (Basirico) It was developed by C. Right Mills. Sociological imagination explores how events in history affect a generation s way of thinking. It also takes into perspective the personal biography of an individual that exploits the interworking

Drunk Drivers Essay - 1097 Words

Driving a vehicle is a huge responsibility, and can be dangerous for anyone who is careless on the road. That danger increases as drivers attempt to drive either intoxicated or drunk. Blood alcohol concentration, also known as BAC, is the amount of alcohol in the blood of one’s system, and is used as a measure of degree of intoxication in an individual (answers.com). In the United States it is illegal per se, to drive with a BAC of .08 for all drivers who are 21 and older (nhtsa.gov). As the blood alcohol concentration increases, the risk of car accidents, highway injuries, and vehicular deaths also increase. Drunk drivers should be imprisoned on the first offense, if so many lives will be saved. Having the accused imprisoned on the first†¦show more content†¦That accounted for 32 percent of total traffic fatalities for the year (alcoholalert.com). Similarly, a lot less people would get hurt. Apparently, one in three people will be involved in an alcohol-related crash in their lifetime (madd.org). Every minute, one person is injured from an alcohol-related crash (madd.org). Another benefit is that there will also be fewer property damages. Drunk drivers caused over $1.2 billion in property damage in 2002 (alcoholalert.com). All these statistics will decline as soon as drunk drivers are imprisoned on the first offense. Imprisoning drunk drivers on the first offense will put an end to habitual offenders as well. The accused will not have a second chance to make the same mistake again. Many of the cases of drunk driving are repeat offenders who received warnings, fines, or points on their licenses that drove up their auto insurance rates and other monetary fines but rarely anything that made them stop driving drunk. An average drunk driver has driven drunk 80 times before first arrest (madd.org). It is well known that most accidents caused by DUI drivers have driven drunk many previous times before getting into an accident. These people should not get a second chance to drive on the road again and should be immediately put in jail. Another factor is that it will prevent teens and young adult to become future alcoholics. One in fiveShow MoreRelatedDrunk Driver And Drunk Drivers923 Words   |  4 PagesIn 2013, 10,076 people died because of drunk drivers. One every 52 minutes. 290,000 were injured because of the accidents (MADD). In 2012, 3,328 people died because of car crashes due to the fact that drivers were on their phones. 421,000 were injured (Texting and Driving Statistics). Driving is not an easy task so you should always be attentive to what you’re doing. A big difference between both is being sober and being drunk. Someone that’s drunk isn’t fully aware of what’s going on. Someone whoRead MoreDrunk Drivers And Drunk Driving946 Words   |  4 PagesWhile I have never personally been involved in a crash caused by drunk driving, as a firefighter I have approached the aftermath of many. The worst drunk driving accident I have witnessed was a car that had rolled three times. The guy flew out the front window, leaving deep cuts all over his head. Because he was intoxicated, he tried to get up and move around, oblivious to his injuries or pain. He didn’t even realize he had gotten into an accident. As I watched the scene unfold, it made me angryRead MoreDrunk Driving And Drunk Drivers2145 Words   |  9 Pageskilled in drunk driving incidents. Out of those people, 65% (6,515) were drivers, 27% (2,724) were passengers, and 8% (837) were non-passengers (â€Å"Drunk Driving Statistics†). Over half of those fatalities (67.1%) involved blood alcohol levels over .15% (â€Å"Drunk Driving Statistics†). The legal blood-alcohol content is .08%. Drunk dr iving caused 31% of deaths in car crashes in 2013 (â€Å"Drunk Driving Statistics†). In 2012, 402 people were killed by alcohol impairment in North Carolina (â€Å"Drunk Driving Statistics†)Read MoreDrunk Drivers Should Not Be Banned1279 Words   |  6 PagesSince there is a large amount of drunk driving accidents almost every year there are drunk drivers getting away and not having any harsh consequences.Drunk driving has killed over hundreds of citizens due to the mistakes by over intoxicated drivers. States all across the country have lowered the blood alcohol limit to keep drunk drivers off the road from hitting a pedestrian. Some citizens believe that drunk drivers should not be punished more harshly due to be over intoxicated while driving. IfRead MoreEssay about Drunk Drivers Should Be Imprisoned on the First Offense758 Words   |  4 PagesDrunk Drivers Should Be Imprisoned On The First Offense Drunk Drivers accounted for 32% of all traffic fatalities last year, which amounts to someone being killed every 45 minutes by a drunk driver. The penalties for most states is just temporary suspension of driver’s licenses for up to 1 year, and to only pay associated fines accessed by the court. Usually, drunken driving offenders are back on the road driving within a year, and with the assistance of a good attorney with weeks. AlthoughRead MoreDrunk Drivers Should Be Imprisoned in the 1st Offence1086 Words   |  5 PagesDRUNK DRIVERS SHOULD BE IMPIRSONED ON THE FIRST OFFENCE Drunk driving is the criminal offence of driving with a blood alcohol content (BAC) level higher than the local legal limit. The blood alcohol content (BAC) drink driving limit in Malaysia is 0.05%. Driving while either intoxicated or drunk is dangerous and drivers with high blood content or concentration (BAC) are at greatly increased risk of car accidents, highway injuries and vehicular deaths. There are a number of possible preventionRead MoreCase Analysis : Cab Aggregators1290 Words   |  6 Pagesbeen incidence of Molestation, rash driving and rape that has shaken the faith of frequent passengers of the aggregators. The Shiv Kumar Yadav case Uber driver Shiv Kumar Yadav was arrested as he allegedly raped a passenger in Gurgaon. The driver fled to Mathura after the incident and turned off his phone and discarded his sim. The convicted driver admits that he baited woman late in the nights near Gurgaon malls and later drives the passenger into a secluded area and assaults the victim. He also keptRead MoreA Day in the Life: The Decision that Changed Everything749 Words   |  3 PagesI was a new driver and I didn’t really know my way around I asked my boyfriend to drive. He said he was too drunk and decided that his friend should drive. This was the mistake I made. About twenty minutes later we were headed down a rural highway. It was dark and so foggy that you can barely see the lines on the road. The driver seemed to be doing alright considering that we were lost. That was until my friend’s boyfriend started being a jerk. Name calling and swearing at the driver for gettingRead MoreTake Home Assignment : Law, Business And Society1307 Words   |  6 Pagesapplication convenient as the fares and the driver details are clearly mentioned. The estimated time of arrival helps to plan ahead of time and the cab reaches at one’s doorstep on the mentioned time. Features like Ola auto and Ola share of Ola, have catered to the needs of the mass market and the cab aggregators now enjoy a significant market share. However, the dark side of this system has slowly come into limelight. Shiv Kumar Yadav, an Uber driver was arrested for allegedly assaulting a womanRead MoreSummary Of All Sound Dies 1728 Words   |  7 Pageswife, Mika is sitting to my right. She’s just begging someone, anyone to spark a conversation. The driver is probably exhausted from yuppie businessmen who insist on a better route and have the indecency to yell their business lingo into their phones. I know that feeling. My publisher is giving me grief for not having any good ideas. I’ve created a town, but not much else. That I’m aware of. The driver looks a tad too young for this job. His hair is dark, his skin is tanned, and judging by a several

Georgia State University Acceptance Rate, SAT/ACT Scores, GPA

Georgia State University is a public research university with an acceptance rate of 71%. Located on an urban campus in Atlanta, Georgia, GSU is part of the University System of Georgia. Undergraduate students can choose from over 100 fields of study with business and the social sciences among the most popular. In athletics, the Georgia State University Panthers compete in the NCAA Division I  Sun Belt Conference. Considering applying to Georgia State University? Here are the admissions statistics you should know, including average SAT/ACT scores and GPAs of admitted students. Acceptance Rate During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, Georgia State University had an acceptance rate of 71%. This means that for every 100 students who applied, 71 students were admitted, making GSUs admissions process somewhat competitive. Admissions Statistics (2017-18) Number of Applicants 16,348 Percent Admitted 71% Percent Admitted Who Enrolled (Yield) 43% SAT Scores and Requirements Georgia State University requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 81% of admitted students submitted SAT scores. SAT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile ERW 540 630 Math 520 620 ERW=Evidence-Based Reading and Writing This admissions data tells us that most of Georgia States admitted students fall within the top 35% nationally on the SAT. For the evidence-based reading and writing section, 50% of students admitted to GSU scored between 540 and 630, while 25% scored below 540 and 25% scored above 630. On the math section, 50% of admitted students scored between 520 and 620, while 25% scored below 520 and 25% scored above 620. Applicants with a composite SAT score of 1250 or higher will have particularly competitive chances at Georgia State University. Requirements Georgia State requires the SAT writing section. Note that GSU does not superscore SAT results; your highest composite SAT score will be considered. ACT Scores and Requirements Georgia State requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 40% of admitted students submitted ACT scores. ACT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile English 20 26 Math 19 26 Composite 21 26 This admissions data tells us that most of GSUs admitted students fall within the top 42% nationally on the ACT. The middle 50% of students admitted to Georgia State received a composite ACT score between 21 and 26, while 25% scored above 26 and 25% score below 21. Requirements Note that Georgia State University does not superscore ACT results; your highest composite ACT score will be considered. Georgia State requires the ACT writing section. GPA In 2019, the middle 50% of Georgia State Universitys incoming class had high school GPAs between 3.3 and 3.8. 25% had a GPA above 3.8, and 25% had a GPA below 3.3. These results suggest that most successful applicants to Georgia State University have primarily A and B grades. Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph Georgia State University Applicants Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph. Data courtesy of Cappex. The admissions data in the graph is self-reported by applicants to Georgia State University. GPAs are unweighted. Find out how you compare to accepted students, see the real-time graph, and calculate your chances of getting in  with a free Cappex account. Admissions Chances Georgia State University is a somewhat selective public university where fewer than three-quarters of applicants are accepted. Admissions are based primarily on your GPA in GSUs required high school curriculum and your SAT or ACT scores. The admissions office will be looking for high grades in a  rigorous course schedule that includes four years of English, math, and natural science; three years of social science; and two years of the same foreign language. Students may submit an optional letter of recommendation to strengthen their GSU application. In the graph above, the blue and green dots represent accepted students. The majority of admitted students had high school GPAs of 3.0 or higher, SAT scores (ERWM) of 950 or higher, and ACT composite scores of 18  or better. Georgia State calculates GPA using core college preparatory courses in English, math, science, social science, and foreign language. If You Like Georgia State, You May Also Like These Schools Spelman CollegeEmory UniversityFlorida State UniversityHoward UniversityUniversity of MiamiAuburn University All admissions data has been sourced from the National Center for Education Statistics and Georgia State University Undergraduate Admissions Office.

Business Law Grocery Paper - 2000 Words

Grocery, Inc. Located in Any State, U.S.A Grocery, Inc. is a retail grocery store with locations all over the United States of America (U.S.A.). Tom Green and Jeff fresh work for the store located in My Town, U.S.A. Tom is the produce manager and Jeff, 17 years old, is working for Tom in the produce department. The first scenario is the contract between Grocery, Inc. and Masterpiece Construction for the renovation of the store located on Main Street in My Town, U.S.A. The second scenario is an underage contract between Jeff and Smooth Sales Used Cars. The third scenario is a breach of contract and/or promissory estopple between Tom Green and Harry. The fourth scenario is regarding an e-commerce contract between George and Grocery, Inc.†¦show more content†¦Attorney John Roska’s column in Saint Louis Post-dispatch answers questions to a similar situation, the article states that a minor can cancel a contract at anytime for any reason as long as the minor informs the ot her party about canceling the contract and returns the car. After the minor returns the car, the other party must return the money received for the car since the car has been returned (Roska, 2007). Smooth could sue Jeff Fresh for fraud because Jeff did not inform Smooth of his age though it would not make it far in the courts due to a minor does not have a full understanding of contracts which is why the contract would be unenforceable. Smooth may be fined for not taking the necessary steps in checking age and not gaining the permission of the minor’s parents, or placing the contract in the parents’ names. Some legal and equitable remedies that may be used are compensatory damages, liquidated damages, and special performance. Compensatory damages are when the party whom the breach happened to gets compensated for the remainder of the contract as if the contract would have played out though the contract was never enforceable due to Jeff being a minor. If Smooth had written action which may happen if the contract was breached is considered liquated damages, Smooth may try to get Jeff’s parents to pay the remainder of the balance. Special performance means the person whomShow MoreRelatedSwot Analysis Of Woolworths And Coles Essay1270 Words   |  6 PagesHI5003S_T3_2016 - ECONOMICS FOR BUSINESS (HI5003S_T3_2016) Individual Assignment Self Check Link Shyam Rasiklal PATEL on Wed, Nov 23 2016, 9:21 PM 67% highest match Submission ID: e73a5c84-e084-428d-bdb8-c93beafd0672 †¢ Supermarket duopoly Final.docx Word Count: 1,208 Attachment ID: 144300849 67% Citations (6/6) 1. 1Another student s paper 2. 2Another student s paper 3. 3ProQuest Document 4. 4Another student s paper 5. 5Another student s paper 6. 6Another student s paper Supermarket duopoly andRead MoreFundamentals Of Macroeconomics Paper On Macroeconomics1272 Words   |  6 Pages Fundamentals of Macroeconomics Paper Macroeconomics is a study in which reflects the economy as a whole and the levels of total output, which is also referred to as national income. National income measures the value of an output produced in an economy over a period of time. In this paper gross will attempt to describe the economics related word terms such as gross domestic product (GDP), real GDP, nominal GDP, unemployment rate, inflation rate and interest rate in laymen. Also will describeRead MoreThe Swot Analysis Of Waitrose1530 Words   |  7 Pages The PESTEL Analysis of Waitrose Name Institution â€Æ' Waitrose is a chain of super-markets in United Kingdom focused on the grocery business. The organization as of 2010 had 228 retail branches only in UK making it the 6th largest retailer with a market share of 4.3% in UK (Corporate Watch, 2012). The grocery business is a major contributor to the food industry and forms the core of the retailing venture attracting many market players in UK such as Tesco, Iceland, Somerfield, Sainsbury’sRead MoreGrocery Inc.1309 Words   |  6 Pages Grocery, Inc. Paper It has been known for major companies to be in the light of the court for breach of contract. Depending on the stipulation of the contract most companies end up losing, but it is solely based on what the contract states. For example, in the matter of Grocery v. Masterpiece, (Specific performance, 2008) as a general rule, equity will not order acts that it cannot supervise. In many instances, specific performance is denied where courts would be unduly burdened with the taskRead MoreWal Mart Integrated Inventory Management Systems1420 Words   |  6 Pagesmuch more accurate and faster than if employees were to take inventory. The service that our product provides is to take this current technology and to implement it at a grocery stores as well as retail in the long run. This would be a new type of shopping experience where customers would have to register their credit cards at a grocery store of their choice. 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That process took decades, as several chapters from the book demonstrate (Lichtentstein, 2006). Nelson LichtensteinRead MoreThe Noose Tightens For Two Important Reasons961 Words   |  4 Pagesenvironment for the Jews. They begin rationing goods and making it harder for Vladek’s family to work. Most of the business done by Vladek or his father-in-law must be dealt with on the black market in order for the family to get their basic needs. Nahum Cohn and two other Jews were taken away for dealing goods without coupons. Vladek’s and him father-in-law did quite a bit of business with h im because he owned a dry goods store. Vladek also says he traded with one of the other men Pfefer, a ZionistRead MoreMap the Supply Chain Paper813 Words   |  4 Pagescustomers across the world. The Coca-Cola Company uses an efficient, extensive network of distributors to reach retailers, and ultimately, their consumers, making their products available when and where customers want them. 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The Lively Earth Important Features Make the Earth Unique Free Essays

string(90) " Venus from the sun is 3/4 and 4/5 of the Earth, Venus has an atmosphere \(Adams, 1934\)\." EASC 2112 Earth System The lively Earth: important features make the Earth unique Name: Leung Ho Nam, Banson UID: 2011712579 Introduction: The Earth is one of the eight planets in the solar system. The planet Earth is emphasized as â€Å"the rare Earth† in numerous literatures because of its unique physical conditions and the complicated interactions among all biotic and abiotic systems. Isotope dating indicates the earth was formed approximately from 4. We will write a custom essay sample on The Lively Earth: Important Features Make the Earth Unique or any similar topic only for you Order Now 53 to 4. 568 Ga, according to isotope used (Allegre et. al. , 1995). Despite the precise formation time of the Earth, there is no exact planet formation model that is generally accepted except the minimum mass solar nebula model, MMSN (Canup, 2008). The MMSN model suggested the planetary accretion of the Earth and other terrestrial planets begins with a disc of hydrogen abundant gas and dust, circulating around the sun. Following by a series of collision, small particles combine and collapse repeatedly. The runaway growth slows down until reaching a certain mass (Canup, 2008). The formation process is crucial to the evolution of the Earth because it determines the source of materials which the Earth contains. The formation of the Earth, indeed, is not specific enough to comprise â€Å"the rare Earth† because all solar planets were grown within a circumsolar disc of gas and dust suggested by Canuo (2008). When we look at the solar system from the outer space, the Earth is probably the only shiny blue planet because of water surface reflection. 70 percent of the Earth surface is covered by the ocean. There is approximately 1. 4 billion km2 of liquid water by mass on Earth (Oak amp; Kanae, 2006). The existence of permanent liquid water responsible to create a mild temperature and a stable environment. Liquid water is an important element implicates the emergence and evolution of life on Earth after a few million years from the latest collision (Baross amp; Hoffman, 1985). The distinct blue colour of the ocean and the green colour of the terrestrial land is obvious on the Earth surface. Nevertheless, it is hardly to observe the entire view of the surface because of the scattering effect (Adams, 1934) and screening effect of the cohesive cloud in the atmosphere. Differences between the earth’s atmosphere and other planetary atmosphere including the presence of oxygen and relatively low carbon dioxide concentration. The atmosphere is extremely important to the biosphere. Without atmosphere, organisms nowadays would probably remain in the simple form or single celled. Furthermore, the ozone layer in the atmosphere absorbs and reflects part of the solar radiation incoming from the sun. This reduction of solar radiation lowers down the atmospheric temperature dramatically which allows organisms to survive. The Earth would not be so unique among the solar system when missing either one of the systems. The Gaia hypothesis links this concept and indicates the Earth is a giant self-regulating system. The interactions of the organisms with their abiotic environments modified the condition of the Earth such as oxygen content and atmospheric temperature, making the Earth more habitable terrestrial planet (Lovelock, 1973). Evolution of the Earth: Allegre and the research team (1995) suggested that the Earth was formed 4. 53 to about 4. 7 Ga. The age range of the earth was estimated by means of a series of isotope dating so the results are relatively valid. The Earth queues the third planet from the sun and its average radius is 6371 km (Lide, 2000). Because of specific distance from the sun and the size, the Earth prevents some of the very light elements, such as hydrogen, from escaping, by gravitational force (Adams, 1934). Moreover, the Earth has a gravitational force of 10 g (Yoder, 1995). Gravitational force is an inconspicuous pull generated from the Earth core. The Earth self-spins once it is formed. The rotation period of the earth is 23 hours and 56 minutes (Gold, 1967). This spinning effect creates centrifugal force which differentiate substances by mass. Heavy metal tends to migrate toward the Earth core and leaving the light materials outside. When time passes, the surface of the earth cools and the first land formed. Although land also appears in other planets such as Mars, the crust of the Earth is different. Interestingly, unlike Mars, the Earth surface is not covered by a concrete sphere but a few tectonic plates. Since the Mars is much smaller than the Earth so the cooling effect of Mars is much faster than the Earth. By now, the crust of the Mars has not been renewed for a certain long period. The plate tectonic moves with three strategies, convergency, divergency and transformation. The movement of the plates driven by the underneath semisolid magma (Courteny, 2008). Surface morphology is determined by the way which the tectonic plates move and density of the plates. Tectonic activities, earthquake, mountain-building, volcanic eruption and subduction zone, are restricted along plate boundaries (Courtery, 2008). Volcanic activities and oceanic subduction are extremely important processes to deliver materials from the inner core and renew surface materials respectively. These recycling processes keep providing accessible resources for the living organisms. Atmosphere and ocean formation was also suggested to be related to volcanic activities (Morbidelli, 2000). Aforementioned that self-spinning of the Earth differentiate substances on Earth. Iron, as a metal that can be magnetized, and with accordingly high atomic mass, moves inward and forms the core. After 60 million years after the late Heavy Bombardment, the magnetic field was established (Staff, 2010). Studies from Karato (1993) implies the magnetic field may relate to the magnetizing properties of iron. No matter how the Earth’s magnetic field was formed, it â€Å"prevents the atmosphere being stripped away by the solar wind† (Staff, 2010). Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the outermost, thin layer enclosing the Earth. The composition of the atmosphere for example, oxygen, is imperative to the evolution of the Earth. The atmosphere of the Earth is comparable to the nearby terrestrial planet such as Mars and Venus. Given that the average distance and the size of Venus from the sun is 3/4 and 4/5 of the Earth, Venus has an atmosphere (Adams, 1934). You read "The Lively Earth: Important Features Make the Earth Unique" in category "Papers" Spectroscopic studies indicate that the atmosphere of Venus does not show any markings representing the presence of oxygen and water vapour, even if these elements, once, had been appearing on Venus, they were consumed by the crust. Another result in the same spectroscopic concluded that the Venus atmosphere contains a high concentration of carbon dioxide, triggering a sever greenhouse effect (Adams, 1934). In addition to Venus, the Mars with only one tenth by the mass of the Earth also has an atmosphere. Spectrograms studies raised significant markings on ? 8300 and ? 8700 recognizes the appearance of water and carbon dioxide respectively on the Mars atmosphere(Kaplan et. al. , 1964). The presence of water on Mars is obvious with the ice cap present in the polar region of Mars (Adams, 1934). Not surprisingly, oxygen absents in Mars atmosphere and was proofed by the light frequency relative to carbon dioxide was not absorbed by the Mars atmosphere (Kaplan et. al.. 1964). From the example of Venus and Mars, it clearly shows that containing such a high concentration of oxygen, 21%, with extraordinary low carbon dioxide concentration, 0. 03%, as the Earth’s atmosphere is uncommon in the solar system. The composition of the Earth atmosphere provides with evidences that it has been modified by some other factors. This modification, as we know, was conducted by plants. Plants inhale carbon dioxide and exhale free oxygen as a by-product through the process of photosynthesis, inorganic substances were also converted into organic substances during the process (Berkner amp; Marshall, 1965). Free oxygen facilitates the evolution of organisms because high oxygen concentration triggers aerobic respiration, without oxygen, organisms nowadays would probably remain simple (Fenchel amp; Finlay, 1994). Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration not only limit on the requirement of oxygen, the oxidizing power and good electron accepting properties of oxygen boosts energy metabolism (Babcock, 1999). Babcock (1999) also stated that aerobic respiration releases much more ATPs than anaerobic respiration, ATP can be treated as the energy storage unit in organisms. In other words, organisms undergo aerobic respiration can perform more vigorous activities or prolong the duration of the activities. Furthermore, the ozone layer derived from the excess free oxygen incubated a habitable environment for living organisms. The ozone layer with related to energy budget and the effect on human was well examined in Norway (Adams, 1934; Henriksen, 1990). The ozone layer prevents living organisms burnt to death by screening out part of the UV-radiation reaching to the Earth surface. Hydrosphere: By the time when Earth was just formed, water from asteroids,  proto-planets, and  comets was locked in the core. Volcanic extrusion and outgassing brings magma along with dissolved gas and water vapour to the surface respectively. Extruded gas and water vapour suspended in the atmosphere therefore atmospheric pressure continuously increases. Water condenses when the atmospheric vapour pressure is saturated. Water droplets fall onto the ground and ocean formed (Morbidelli, 2000). Liquid water is an advance heat reservior because of having an extremely high specific heat capacity, 4200J/kg/?. This significantly high specific heat capacity, in other words, a large sum of energy can only result in a small extent of changes in temperature of water. The high energy absorption ability combined with the ocean current makes the ocean a good vector for transporting absorbed solar energy and regulating global climate (Michon, 2006). Apart from an excellent thermal reservoir, liquid water is also a good solvent. Gases in the atmosphere and minerals from the hydorthermal vents can easily dissolve into the water. Dissolved gas and minerals has planted a seed to the extensive evolution of life throughout the geological time (Morris, 2007). Biosphere: As we discussed the geosphere, atmosphere and the hydrosphere above, these systems have one thing in common. All the systems are linked with the biosphere. Although other planets in the solar system exhibit either physical feature, mostly not more than two, with Earth. The true uniqueness of the Earth raised from the presents of life which cannot be found on other planets recently. The origin of life is still a hot arguing topic among groups of scientists. However, the hydothermal vent is the most commonly and recently acceptable concepts of the origin of life (Baross amp; Hoffman, 1985). The origin of life via submarine hydrothermal vent hypothesis has not been disproved yet since it was published because there are no other environment on Earth can provide a thermo-stable habitat with abundant minerals supply, for example, nitrogen and sulphur, for life establishment (Baross amp; Hoffman, 1985). Photosynthesis is considered as a key issue of the origin of life (Hartman, 1996). Bacteria record found in western Australia, dated as 3. 5 billion years ago, stated that cyanobacteria may be the first autotrophic organism and responsible for the later atmospheric modification (Awranik, 1992). This key process opens the window of free oxygen, hence considerably boosted the evolution of organisms. The GAIA Hypothesis: Every system discussed above has its own features and contributions within the system boundaries. There is no doubt that every literatures when emphasizing the planet Earth, it can hardly find any paper just put the focus on a single system. The same situation can also be observed in this article. For example, in the discussion part of the origin and development of the atmosphere, the tectonic activities and outgassing processes were mentioned. Moreover, a similar case was obtained when investigating biosphere. Although the whole part is bias towards living organisms, the effect of atmosphere to the biosphere can hardly be eliminated. The above situation is not due to the habit of the authors or the regulations of the publishers but it is the real case of the Earth. All systems on the Earth, including geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere or even self-defined systems, are interdependent. These systems interact with each other to create a more habitable planey. This complex interaction has long been observed by James Lovelock (1973) and explained in the GAIA Hypothesis. GAIA hypothesis suggested early life form achieve some sort of ability to control the global climate and the effect is still active. Lovelock (1972) stated that once the life exist on Earth, the physical environment and the chemical states had resulted a dramatic change. For example, the solar radiation level had increased dramatically since life exists. The Earth surface temperature, nevertheless, has only changed for a few degrees, throughout billion of years, compared to the current temperature. More interestingly, the rate and the extent of temperature change during the past billion years is so slow and mild respectively that the environment always permit the persistence of living organisms or provide long enough time for organisms to adapt. Without life, the atmosphere of the Earth will be similar to that of Mars and Venus. The above example, therefore, proved that the atmosphere we are now breathing is â€Å"biological contrivance† (Lovelock, 1972). The terms â€Å"Spaceship Earth† (Lovelock, 1972) was used to represent the planet where we are living. When astronauts were sent into the space, all the requirements for survival can only obtain from the storage in the spaceship. If either system in the spaceship fails, astronauts will probably die. Conclusion: Doubtlessly, the Earth has many physical environments that absent in other planets. For example, liquid water and living organisms. However, what really makes the Earth rare is the interaction between different functional systems with unknown complexity. These interactions connected to the terminology of the â€Å"Spaceship Earth† meaning the Earth has the ability to self-regulate to adjust its own environmental condition that result in a harmonious giant system. Reference: Awramik, S. M. (1992). The oldest records of photosynthesis. PhotosynthesisResearch 33 (2): 75-89 Claude J. Allegre,  Gerard Manhes,  Christa Gopel, (1995). The age of the Earth. David R. Lide. (2000). Various. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics  . 1 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 59 (8):1445–1456 Gerald T Babcock. (1999). How oxygen is activated and reduced in respiration. PNAS. 96(23):12971-12973 Henriksen, Thormod, Dahlback, Arne, Larsen, Soren H. H. Moan, Johan. (1990). ULTRAVIOLET-RADIATION and SKIN CANCER. EFFECT OF AN OZONE LAYERDEPLETION. Photochemistry and Photobiology. 51 (5):579-582 Hyman Hartman. (1996). Photos ynthesis and the origin of life. Origins of life andevolution of the biosphere. 28:515-521 James E. Lovelock, (1972). Chapter 25: GAIA as seen through the atmosphere. Atmospheric environment. 6 (8):579-580 James E. Lovelock, (1973). Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: thegaia hypothesis. Tellus. 26 (1-2):2-10 John A. Baross amp; Sarah E. Hoffman. (1985). Submarine hydrothermal vents andassociated gradient environments as sites for the origin and evolution of life. Origin of life and evolution of the biosphere. 15 (4):327-345 L. V. Berkner amp; L. C. Marshall. (1965). On the origin and rise of oxygen concentrationin the earth’s atmosphere. Journal of the atmospheric science. 22(3):225-261 Lewis D. Kaplan, Guido Munch, Hyron Spinrad (1964). An analysis of the spectrum ofMars. The astrophysical journal. 139 (1): 1-15 Morbidelli, A. et al. (2000). Source regions and time scales for the delivery of waterto Earth. Meteoritics amp; Planetary Science  35  (6): 1309–1320 Morris, Ron M. (2007). Oceanic Processes. NASA Astrobiology Magazine. P. D. Moore. (1983). Plants and the palaeoatmosphere. Journal of the GeologicalSociety of London, 140(1):13-25 Robin M. Canup, (2008). Accretion of the Earth. Philosophical Transactions:Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 66:4061-4075 Scott, Michon (2007). Earth’s Big heat Bucket. NASA Earth Observatory Seligman, Courtney (2008). The Structure of the Terrestrial Planets. OnlineAstronomy eText Table of Contents. URL: cseligman. com. Accessed: 6thNovermber,2012 Shun-ichiro Karato. (1993). Inner Core Anisotropy Due to the MagneticField—induced Preferred Orientation of Iron. Science,  262 (5140):1708-1711. Staff. (2010). Oldest measurement of Earth’s magnetic field reveals battle betweenSun and Earth for our atmosphere. Physorgnt. news. T. Gold. (1967). Radio Method for the Precise Measurement of the Rotation Period ofthe Earth. Science. 21 (3786):302-304 Taikan Oki amp; Shinjiro Kanae, (2006). Global Hydrological Cycles and World WaterResources. Science 313 (1068. ) Tom Fenchel amp; Bland J. Finlay. (1994). The evolution of life without oxygen. Americanscientist. 82 (1):22-29 Walter S. Adams, (1934). The Planets and Their Atmospheres. The Scientific Monthly. 39 (1):5-19 Yoder, Charles F. (1995). Global Earth Physic. A Handbook of Physical Constants. Washington: American Geophysical Union. p. 12 How to cite The Lively Earth: Important Features Make the Earth Unique, Papers

MRI Imaging Musculoskeltal Assignment - Effective Solution

Questions: 1- Femoroacetabular Impingement (FAI) can be an indication for MRI of the hip. Define and discuss this condition. 2- Discuss coil selection and describe how you would position a patient for MRI of hips. 3- "Tennis Elbow" is a common indication for elbow MRI. Define and discuss this condition. 4- Discuss coil selection and describe how you would position a patient for MRI of an elbow Answers: 1. Femoroacetabular Impingement (FAI) can be an indication for MRI of the hip. Define and discuss this condition. Femoroacetabular Impingement or FAI is said to be a condition where the hip bones are unusually shaped (Owens, 2009). As because of the irregular bones, they do not perfectly fit together and hence, rub against one another. This causes injury to the hip joint. This picture represents healthy hip; femoral head sets in perfectly into acetabulum; source: Basically, the hip anatomy is made up of a ball and socket joint. The socket potion is made up of acetabulum, the part of largest pevis bone. The ball is mainly the thighbone or femoral head that is the upper area of femur. A greasy tissue, articluar cartilage cover ups the ball and socket surface. The articluar cartilage creates a low friction and smooth surface, which helps the hip bones to easily move smoothly across one another. The acetabulum is looped by labrum, a strong fibrocartilage. The labrum practically works as a mechanical seal, a tight seal that gives joint stability. This picture illustrates comparison among different states of FAI; source: (Hessel, 2014). In case of femoroacetabular impingement, bone spurs form along the acetabulum or femoral head. The overgrowth of bone causes hip bones to knock against one another and cannot move smoothly (Pun, Kumar Lane, 2014). Eventually, this condition can give rise to the ripping of labrum and articular cartilage breakdown, which is also termed as osteoarthritis. Types of FAI There are mainly three types of FAI, medically termed as cam, pincer and combined impingement. Cam: In case of cam, the femoral head is malformed and failed to rotate smoothly inside acetabulum. A bulge appears on the boundary of femoral head and this appearance crushes the cartilage insde acetabulum. Pincer: This type of condition arises because of extension of an extra bone over normal acetabulum rim. This situation can crush labrum beneath the prominent rim of acetabulum. Combined: In this type of impingement both can and pincer types are visible. FAI progression Currently it is quite difficult to statistically present the data of FAI affected individuals. Few people may survive for a longer period of time, actively with FAI and may never face any complications. Nevertheless, while indications develop it generally shows that damage is present to the labrum or cartilage and subsequently the illness is expected to progress. Indications may include limping, stiffness and pain. Causes of FAI FAI takes place as hip bones fail to form usually during childhood. It is considered as the malformation of a pincer or cam bone spur or both the condition together, which causes joint pain and damage. It is said that when hip bones are abnormally shaped, there will be few options left to avoid this condition. Researchers have seen that athletically active individual may utilize their hip joint more dynamically. They may start to feel the pain prior than those individuals who are not much active. Nevertheless, exercises do not cause FAI. Symptoms of FAI FAI affected individuals generally suffer from pain within the groin region, through pain can be sometimes felt towards the exterior part of the hip. Sharp and stabbing sensation of pain may initiate with squatting, twisting and turning but occasionally it is merely a dull sensation. Diagnosis of FAI Impingement test Initially the physician prefers to check the primary indication by conducting impingement test. During this examination, the knees are brought up to the chest and rotate inwards towards opposite the shoulders. If this rotation created pain in the hip, the result indicates positive signs for impingement test. Imaging test Imaging tests include x-rays, MRI and CT scans. MRI is considered as the best imaging test, as this can create better images of flexible tissues. By this test physicians find damages to the articular cartilage and labrum area. To make the image more prominent, dyes are injected into the joint areas. Or else, numbing medicines are also injected into the joints. These medicines give pain relief for certain period of time and confirm that femoroacetabular impingement is a complication. Treatment of FAI Treatment includes surgical and non-surgical interventions. Activity changes, physical therapy and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs come under non-surgical interventions. Such as: ibuprofen helps to reduce inflammation and pain. Incisions to treat FAI; source: (Palmer et al., 2014) Many femoroacetabular impingement complications are treated with surgical treatment. For example: arthroscopic techniques are performed with little incisions and light instruments. According to the American Society for Sports Medicine, surgeries can diminish indications successfully caused by impingement. Correcting this problem can stop further damage to the joints of the hip region (Amssm.org, 2015). Nevertheless, all the damage cannot be corrected with surgeries, particularly if management has been postponed and injury is severe. Therefore, recently, surgeries are considered as the best way to manage painful femoroacetabular impingement. 2. Coil selection Multipurpose phased array coil; source: (Moller Reif, 2010) Shoulder coil; source: (Moller Reif, 2010). Characterizing anatomical borders for MRI offers means of verifying the inclusion regions when selecting a proper radiofrequency coil and developing a pulse sequence. Inidivual imaging coil has particular specified view field, which need to be considered by radiographer, while choosing a proper device. Different coils are structured with a typical function in mind, but are commonly adapted in medical imaging purpose of more than one area of the system. Multipurpose phased array coil is probably the best for imaging purpose for joints, like hip and elbow region (Petchprapa, Dunham, Lattanzi Recht, 2013). Not only that, shoulder coils may also be used for hip joint imaging. MRI of hip joints is considered as the most hopeful and rapidly developing methods of contemporary diagnostics. The doctors can investigate the pathological and structural changes and also evaluate pathophysiological and physico-chemical processes of hip joints all together or as individual structures. For hips, a dedicated phrased array hip coil or phased array cardiac coil or phased array torso coil is good to use. If signal to noise ratio is not satisfactory with torso coil, then using a flex wrap coil is always recommendable (Orbach et al., 2006). The view field needs to be adequate to resolve acetabular roof and articular cartilage of femoral head. In case an extra Matrix or NEX is needed for proper SNR on 3small field of view (FOV) sequences through affected if, then the radiographer should perform so, even though this process adds additional times. The coronal stir needs to be a rapid sequence; the slice thickness and resolution need to be accustomed to save some time. It is uncomfortable for a patient if the examination duration increases. Therefore, the capacity to combine parts for multi-region imaging amplifies the efficacy of each coil modules, and this makes the imaging technique of different pathologies or medical indications less burdensome for the radiographers and reduces the time of examinations. Supine position; source: (Rengle et al., 2009) Decubitus position; source: (Rengle et al., 2009) A radiologist may position a patient for in certain postures and coil will be used around the region of interest. This should be exact, as it provides doctors with an outstanding examination. Sometimes the radiographers may ask a patient to lie in a particular position which is not comfortable for him/her. If a patient is feeling complications with a particular position requested, then the patient should convey the same to the radiographer prior starting the assessment. The radiographer may adjust the patient to a comfortable position, so that he/she can examine the patient properly. A proper position of a patient for hip MRI should be the following: supine-feet first (Bright, 2009). This position is helpful to wrap or tape the feet together to diminish the leg movement. If coils are appropriate for bodys imaging, they may be applied when patient illness put limitations on conventional positioning. For example: if a patient is incapable to lying in supine position, the patient may be tter bear the technique when asked to lie in a decubitus position and examined applying a coil. 3. Tennis elbow is said to be a condition where the external parts of elbows become tender and painful. Tennis elbow is also termed as lateral epicondylitis. The external parts of elbows are known as lateral epicondyle. In this condition a chronic or acute inflammation may take place in the joint tendons within the muscles of forearms on the external part of the elbows (Mellor, 2003). The tendons and forearm muscles become injured from over repetitive use, which means repeating the same motions frequently. The tenderness, pain and inflammation on the external parts of elbows are because of the over repetitive motions of the forearm. Causes of tennis elbow Tennis elbow; source: (Jones, 2009) As it is mentioned earlier, tennis elbow is caused by overuse injury. It happens when the tendons and muscles of the forearms are strained because of strenuous or repetitive activity. Not only this, this condition may take place after knocking or banging the elbows. If the tendons or muscles are stressed, tiny inflammation and tars can develop near to the bony lump on the exterior region of the elbows. Activities that can cause tennis elbow include: playing squash, badminton or tennis; throwing sports, like: discus or javelin; application of shears while gardening; application of roller or paintbrush while decorating; bricklaying or plumbing; activities, which includes wrist and hand movements, like: typing or using scissors and other works that include repeated elbow movement, like: playing violin. Researchers have shown that the extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle contributes greatly in this condition (Sasaki et al., 2011). Trauma, for example: direct blows to epicondyle, sudden forceful extension of pull are responsible mainly for these injuries. Playing tennis in a wrong way may initiate the condition of tennis elbow early, as shock is acquired while a player misses a hit. Mostly individual of 30-50years of age are affected with tennis elbow, through anybody can get affected with tennis elbow, if they have the possible risk factors. Macroscopic and microscopic tears between the periosteum area of lateral humeral epicondyle and the extensor tendon are the main pathological changes, occur during this condition. Radial nerves are significantly associated with this condition. In this condition radial nerves constrictions may take place by sticking to the short extensor muscle and radiohumeral joint of the wrist. Calcification of bicipital tendinitis, rotator cuff and carpal tunnel syndrome can increase the possibility of tennis elbow. Symptoms of tennis elbow Pain location in lateral epicondylitis; source: In this case, generally pain slowly increases around the exterior part of the elbow and very less it is seen that pain develops all of a sudden. Pain is worst while squeezing any object, shaking hands, moving wrist with force, such as: using tools, lifting, opening jars, application of fork, knife or toothbrush. It weakens the grip strengths. Diagnosis of tennis elbow Doctor generally considers different factors while making an analysis. These include how the indications developed, work-related risk factors and sports participation. Imaging tests include x-rays, MRI and EMG. Electormyography or EMG is performed to exclude nerve compression. If a physician assumed that he pain is associated with neck problem, an MRI scan is recommended to check for a possibility of arthritis or herniated disk in the neck. Both these conditions may produce pain in the arm (Chiang, Hsieh Lew, 2012). X-ray is generally performed to exclude the condition of elbow arthritis. Treatment of tennis elbow Non-surgical: steroid injections can be administered in this condition, for example: cortisone is very efficient as anti-inflammatory drugs. However, another option is extracorporeal shock wave therapy, where it sends sound waves towards the elbow and creates microtrauma, which induce the systems natural healing pathways (Hughes, 2010). This technique is still in its infancy. Physical therapy includes exercises for improvingthe muscle strength of forearms. Therapist may perform ice massage, ultrasound or other associated muscle stimulating techniques to develop muscle healing. Surgical: if non-surgical treatments do not respond well, then a physician mostly recommend a patient for surgical treatment. This includes open surgery and arthroscopic surgery. Open surgery is considered as the most common approach. This includes performing an incision over elbow. After surgical treatment arm may be temporarily immobilized with splint. After a week the splint and sutures are removed (Larsen, 2012). Researchers have suggested that, with surgical invention various complications may have raised, and almost 80-95% patients showed successful response with non-surgical therapies. 4. 5-inch wraparound coil; A-represents General Electrical flex receive-only coil and B-represents elbow position; source: (Kaplan Potter, 2004). The attainment of standard MRI images of elbow is tough by various factors, which includes complication in patient positioning, lack of dedicated elbow coils and lower signal to noise ratio at the off-center magnate. Elbow imaging can be taken side-wise or by placing the patient in superman position. 5-inch wraparound coil is good for imaging elbow (Teh, 2007). This type of coils are versatile and help in visualization of articulation, comprising distal biceps tendon attachment to radial tuberosity, containing different variety of elbow sizes. Images of elbows, which are obtained in flexed position, necessitate the application of surface coils. Picture A, B and C shows patient positions for elbow imaging; source: (Subramanya Herald, 2014). Picture A shows elbow phased array coils and B shows larger phased array coils; source: (Subramanya Herald, 2014). Elbows are complicated joints and commonly injured areas. Assessment of the elbows by MRI is considered as an important option to medical examination. In case of elbow imaging, it should be carried out in three planes. This is because certain structures are finely observed in a particular plane that means: ligaments in coronal, bicep tendons in sagittal and nerves in axial plane. The sequence choice differs by organization and need to include proton density weight sequences and non-fat saturate T1or tiny tau inversion improvement sequences that are crucial for potential bone injury evaluation. Patient positioning is considered as the most important part with MRI. The available coil types, support limitations, size of the patient and medical status may contribute to the suboptimal assessments, especially within the upper extremities. The incarcerating nature of mainly high field MRIs, excluding extremity and open systems, diminishes positioning options, typically for obese patients. I maging can be achieved with lower field strength and the currently applicable field strengths for elbow MRIs are 1.5T units and 3.0T units. Patients are mostly placed in supine position with extended elbow, supinated forearm and arm at the sides. Contralateral arm is sometimes placed above head to develop centering of elbow (Seay, Hasselquist Bensel, 2011). But in this type of position, patients sometimes feel uncomfortable. Hence, a dictated circumferential coil can be applied in this situation. Larger phased array coil is preferable for analyzing larger regions, for example: elbow alone or elbow with forearm. References Amssm.org,. (2015).American medical society for sports medicine - AMSSM. Retrieved 22 March 2015, from https://www.amssm.org/ Bright, A. (2009).Planning and Positioning in MRI. London: Elsevier Health Sciences APAC. Chiang, Y., Hsieh, S., Lew, H. (2012). The Role of Ultrasonography in the Differential Diagnosis and Treatment of Tennis Elbow.American Journal Of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation,91(1), 94-95. doi:10.1097/phm.0b013e31823caf7f Hessel, J. (2014). Femoroacetabular Impingement in Athletes.Orthopaedic Nursing,33(3), 137-139. doi:10.1097/nor.0000000000000045 Hughes, N. (2010).The effects of elbow manipulation combined with dry needling compared to manipulation combined with cross friction in the treatment of lateral epicondylitis. Jones, V. (2009). Physiotherapy in the management of tennis elbow: a review.Shoulder Elbow,1(2), 108-113. doi:10.1111/j.1758-5740.2009.00023.x Kaplan, L., Potter, H. (2004). MR imaging of ligament injuries to the elbow.Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics Of North America,12(2), 221-232. doi:10.1016/j.mric.2004.02.006 Larsen, L. (2012).Sports injuries sourcebook. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics. Mellor, S. (2003). Treatment of tennis elbow: the evidence.BMJ,327(7410), 330-330. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7410.330 Moller, T., Reif, E. (2010).MRI parameters and positioning. Stuttgart: Thieme. Orbach, D., Wu, C., Law, M., Babb, J., Lee, R., Padua, A., Knopp, E. (2006). Comparing real-world advantages for the clinical neuroradiologist between a high field (3 T), a phased array (1.5 T) vs. a single-channel 1.5-T MR system.Journal Of Magnetic Resonance Imaging,24(1), 16-24. doi:10.1002/jmri.20612 Owens, B. (2009). Femoroacetabular Impingement.Orthopedics,32(3), 158-158. doi:10.3928/01477447-20090301-22 Palmer, A., Ayyar-Gupta, V., Dutton, S., Rombach, I., Cooper, C., Pollard, T. et al. (2014). Protocol for the Femoroacetabular Impingement Trial (FAIT): a multi-centre randomised controlled trial comparing surgical and non-surgical management of femoroacetabular impingement.Bone And Joint Research,3(11), 321-327. doi:10.1302/2046-3758.311.2000336 Petchprapa, C., Dunham, K., Lattanzi, R., Recht, M. (2013). Demystifying Radial Imaging of the Hip.Radiographics,33(3), E97-E112. doi:10.1148/rg.333125030 Pun, S., Kumar, D., Lane, N. (2014). Review: Femoroacetabular Impingement.Arthritis Rheumatology,67(1), 17-27. doi:10.1002/art.38887 Rengle, A., Armenean, M., Bolbos, R., Goebel, J., Pinzano-Watrin, A., Saint-Jalmes, H. et al. (2009). A Dedicated Two-Channel Phased-Array Receiver Coil for High-Resolution MRI of the Rat Knee Cartilage at 7 T.IEEE Transactions On Biomedical Engineering,56(12), 2891-2897. doi:10.1109/tbme.2008.2006015 Sasaki, K., Tamakawa, M., Onda, K., Iba, K., Sonoda, T., Yamashita, T., Wada, T. (2011). The detection of the capsular tear at the undersurface of the extensor carpi radialis brevis tendon in chronic tennis elbow: the value of magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography arthrography.Journal Of Shoulder And Elbow Surgery,20(3), 420-425. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2010.12.002 Seay, J., Hasselquist, L., Bensel, C. (2011). Carrying a rifle with both hands affects upper body transverse plane kinematics and pelvistrunk coordination.Ergonomics,54(2), 187-196. doi:10.1080/00140139.2010.538726 Subramanya, S., Herald, J. (2014). Reverse Shoulder Arthroplasty With Patient-specific Glenoid Implant Positioning Guides.Techniques In Shoulder Elbow Surgery,15(4), 122-129. doi:10.1097/bte.0000000000000035 Teh, J. (2007). Imaging of the elbow.Imaging,19(3), 220-233. doi:10.1259/imaging/56624048